
Class _TE_iiii 



GopightN 1 30! 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



THE PROGREDIOR SERIES 

THE ANALYSIS 

OF THE 

ENGLISH SENTENCE 

WITH SUPPLEMENT 



BY 

MARION NELSON BEEMAN 



REVISED AND ENLARGED 



A. FLANAGAN CO. 

CHICAGO NEW YORK 



T£ii''> 



THE LIBRARY OF 

CONGRESS, 
Two Cowe8 Received 

JUN. 21 1902 

Copyright entry 

tUo > 1^^ / Cf 1 
CLASS &/XXc No. 

COPY 8. 



COPYRIGHT, 1901, 
BY MARION NELSON BEEMAN 



ALL. RIGHTS RESERVED 



TYPOGRAPHY BY 

MARSH, AITKEN & CURTIS COMPANY 

CHICAGO 



Or 



f* TO MY CHILDREN, 

LESTER, IVA, ROY, AND MARIE, 

AS REPRESENTATIVES OF THAT CLASS OF BEINGS 

IT HAS BEEN MY DELIGHT CONSTANTLY TO 

SERVE FOR THE LAST TWENTY YEARS, 

THIS BOOK IS LOVINGLY 

INSCRIBED 



PREFACE. 



It is intended that this little book shall tell its own story. 
It is denied that Grammar should be a discussion of only the 
forms of language. To ignore meanings and relations of 
meanings as expressed by language forms is to rob this 
most useful branch of all but the most absolutely voluntary 
interest. 

It is argued by many prominent educators, that to carry 
grammar studies into the realm of thought is to encroach 
upon the province of logic. But is that a valid argument 
against considering thought in grammar studies? The unit 
of language study is the sentence. The purpose of logic is to 
discuss the reasoning process, to secure correct reasoning, — 
and the unit of reasoning is the syllogism. Grammar studies 
the notion and the judgment, and ends in the expression of 
the judgment, that is, the sentence. Logic studies the notion 
and the judgment that it may prepare for the clear grasp of 
the reasoning process, which process finds its expression in 
the syllogism. 

The final aim of grammar is the mastery of the judgment 
thru the form (the sentence) used to express the judgment. 



PKEFACE 

There is no value in the form except as it is the expression 
of a meaning. We study words as expressions of ideas. The 
mind in the act of thinking observes relations of ideas in such 
a way as to form judgments. Judgments are the results of 
thought, or thinking. By the sentence, the judgment is 
expressed. If the sentence does not express to us a judgment, 
the sentence is worthless to us. We must study the judg- 
ment thru the sentence, if we would derive any real benefit 
from the study. 

True, some time must be given to the mastering of what 
custom accepts as correct form. This is the drudgery of tliis 
branch. Unless the teaching of these forms is skillfully 
handled, most of the interest in the study dies here. To 
insure a continued interest in the studies of these forms, 
meanings must be involved. Meanings will, when grasped, 
never fail to command interest. 

The judgment and its expression, the sentence, constitute 
the basis, aim, and end of the following course. All the 
studies of form are subservient to this end. All the forms 
of our language may be taught incidentally by their uses 
in the language and composition work in the grades 
below the eighth. The teacher who knoivs the proper usages 
can secure the proper usages by the pupil, incidentally, along 
the line of the course, in the early grades. Let this be done. 

This book is intended for the final year in the grammar 
studies. Eight-year pupils grasp it quickly and easily, as 
has been duly demonstrated with classes, by the author. 
Here is presented a close study of the judgment thru the 
sentence in all its various forms. The Verb is shown to be 



PKEFACE 

the point of departure in almost every variety of sentences, 
so far as their nature is concerned. "Significance thru 
form" is the key-note of this course. Divorce form from 
meaning, and you take the very soul out of the study. Invest 
every form that our language has assumed with a clearly-cut 
significance, and grapple with this significance, and the 
study of grammar furnishes its own inspiration. 

Marion Nelson Beeman. 



INTRODUCTION. 

The key to an easy mastery of the content of the English 
sentence, as discussed in the following course, is an exact 
understanding of the nature of ideas and of the judgment. 
A knowledge of the idea is first necessary, as ideas are the 
ultimate elements of the judgment. The child of the seventh 
or of the eighth grade can be led to recognize the idea by 
the use of concrete objects. 

First — A conscious image of common objects must be 
revealed to the pupil. 

Second — A consciousness of the obvious attributes of these 
same common objects must be made known to the pupil by 
observation and recognition of the same in the objects. 

Third — A relation of agreement must be recognized 
between the substance and the attributes of the substance. 

Fourth — There must be a recognition of the fact that the 
mind holds before it the image of the object together with a 
consciousness of the attribute, and that the mind decides that 
the attribute is true of the object ; that is, that there is agree- 
ment, or congruity, between the attribute and the object. 

Fifth — By a simple kind of mind-action called thought, or 
thinking, w^e decide that the attribute, the idea of which we 
hold before the mind, belongs or does not belong to the sub- 



INTRODUCTION 

stance, the image of which the mind holds. (We use the term 
" image " in the sense of an idea of such material things as 
can be imaged by the mind. These processes must be con- 
fined to concrete objects and their attributes, at this stage. 
Spiritual substances and their attributes are higher up along 
the line of intellectual attainment.) 

Sixth — The elements employed in thinking, together with 
the result of that mind-action called thought, are a judgment. 
The judgment consists of the idea of the object, the idea of 
an attribute, and the idea of the relation of agreement (or dis- 
agreement) between the attribute and the object. 

Illustration: "Crayon" is the expression of an idea 
of a substance. "White" is the expression of the idea 
of an attribute. "Is" is the expression of the relation of 
agreement between the idea of the attribute expressed by 
" white," and the idea of the substance expressed by 
" crayon." " Crayon is white," is the expression of a judg- 
ment ; and " Crayon is white," is a sentence. A sentence is, 
therefore, the expression of a judgment. 

Seventh — Method of presenting ideas to the mind of the 
pupil : — 

1. Ideas of Substances : Hold up a familiar object, say, 
an apple, so that it may be distinctly seen by the class. Ask 
the class to note the object. Withdraw the object from view. 
Ask: "Can you picture to your minds the thing I showed 
you ? " " Shut your eyes and try to recall the form of the 
object you saw." "Was it a real apple you recalled?" 
" No, not a real apple. " " Do you know any name for the 
thing you saw in your minds ?" " What was the thing you 



INTRODUCTION 

saw like?" "It was like the apple you showed us." 
" Then it was not a real apple, but it was an image of an 
apple — an idea of an apple." 

" Now, where was the idea, or image of the apple before 
you told me what it was you saw ? " "It was in my mind. " 
11 Did you know it was in your mind?" " Yes, I knew it 
was only in my mind." 

2. Ideas of Attributes : Hold up to view the apple 
again. Require the class to note the color, shape, or any 
noticeable attribute. Ask : " What peculiarity did you note? 
Say it in one word." Now use other objects in the same 
way, and repeat the process till the notion of the attributes 
of material objects is clearly understood by the pupil. 

3. Ideas of Limitations : Ideas of Limitations are such 
as are expressed by limiting and specifying adjectives, by all 
adverbs except adverbs of manner, and by the four kinds of 
objective elements. Only those limiting ideas expressed by 
limiting and specifying adjectives need be used in this con- 
nection, as only these are needed in beginning with the very 
simple judgments. 

Hold up four crayons, and require pupils to note the 
number limitation of the objects. " How many?" — Do not 
require an answer. Repeat with different numbers and with 
other objects — two pencils, six foot-rules, etc. 

Hold up John's book. " Whose book?" etc., to develop 
the idea of the possessive limitation. 

Place a book in the pupil's hand, and place another on 
the table. "Which book?" — to develop the idea of the 
specifying* limitation. 



INTRODUCTION 

Note now that there are three kinds of ideas of limitations 
developed, as follows : — 

1. Number limitations. 

2. Possessive limitations. 

3. Specifying limitations. 

The first are ideas of the " How many? " of objects. 

The second are ideas of the " Whose? " of objects. 

The third are ideas of the " Which?" of objects. 

When the pupils have gained a clear recognition of the 
above-named kinds of ideas — ideas of substances, of attributes, 
and of limitations, they are ready to proceed with the simplest 
judgment, and then to the study of the expression of this 
simplest judgment — which is the simplest form of the sen- 
tence. The teacher may proceed somewhat as follows : — 

Hold up an apple. Pupils glance at it. Remove it from 
view. Require no answer as yet, but ask each to fix in mind 
what the object presented is. 

Hold up the apple again. Require pupils to note some 
peculiarity, or attribute of the object before them. Require 
no answer as yet, but ask each to fix in mind one attribute 
of the object he has seen. " Now note, pupils, that you hold 
in mind an image, or idea, of an object and also an idea of 
an attribute of that object. Now I wish you to decide whether 
the object you think of possesses the attribute you think of. 
Have you decided ? " "Yes." "Tell me, Mary, with one 
word, what you saw." " Apple." " Tell me with one word 
the attribute you noted." " Round." " Now tell me what 
your decision was — whether the thing named by apple pos- 
sesses the attribute you named. Tell me your decision." 



INTRODUCTION 

44 The apple is round." (Repeat this process with other mem- 
bers of the class till all understand. Write the various sen- 
tences neatly on the blackboard.) 

11 Now, where was the meaning" of this sentence before 
you told it to me? " " The meaning of the sentence was in 
my mind." " Then notice that you held in your mind the 
idea told by the word apple, and the idea told by the word 
round, and also the decision that the object, the idea of which 
is expressed by the word apple, possesses the attribute the 
idea of which is expressed by the word round. Now all this 
which you held in mind makes up what is called a judgment- 
" But what is this which I have written on the blackboard? n 
"That, sir, is a sentence." "This sentence tells what you 
were holding in your mind. What you were holding in mind 
is a judgment. Then what is a sentence?" " A sentence 
is the expression of a judgment," 

/' What part, or element, of the judgment does apple 
express?" " Apple is the expression of the chief idea, or 
element, of the judgment." " We will say, then, that apple 
is the expression of the fundamental element of the judg- 
ment. What part of the judgment does round express?" 
"Round is the expression of the attributive idea, or the 
attributive part, or element of the judgment." " What part 
of the judgment does is express? " (Go back and review the 
contents of the judgment on a preceding page. Pupils will 
surprise you by the readiness with which they will see and 
answer that is is the expression of the decision that the 
thing named by apple possesses the attribute named by 
round). 



INTRODUCTION 

Thus, essentially, is laid the foundation for the study of 
the English sentence. No form of the sentence, however 
complex, is anything more than the crowding of additional 
meaning into the subject and the predicate — or, I may say, 
the complicating of the fundamental and the attributive 
elements of the judgment. 

If grammar studies are to be followed with a never-dying 
interest on the part of the pupil, and if the greatest possible, 
the ultimate, reward is to crown the effort, soul must be put 
into the branch, or rather reached in it. That soul is the 
judgment, of which the sentence is the expression. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I. 



PAGE 

I. Definitions and Comments 11 

II. Subject and Predicate 12 

III. The Complex Subject 15 

IV. The Complex Predicate." 17 

V. Analysis and the Diagram 18 

VI. The Nominative Attribute 20 

VII. The Nominative Attribute — Continued 23 

VIII. The Nominative Attribute — Continued, 24 

IX. The Attributive Verb in Predicate — Intransitive. . 26 

X. The Attributive Verb — Transitive 29 

XI. The Objective Attribute 32 

XII. The Objective Attribute— Continued 36 

XIII. The Nominative Attribute. ...... 38 

XIV. The Double Object 40 

XV. The Indirect Object 41 

XVI. The Adverbial Object 44 

XVII. The Appositive Element 46 

XVIII. Exercises in Syntax 49 



n/ 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

XIX. Exercises in Analysis 50 

XX. Subordinate Elements — The Adjective Word- 

• Element 51 

XXI. Subordinate Elements — The Adverbial Word- 
Element 53 

XXII. Subordinate Elements — The Objective Word- 
Element 55 

XXIII. Subordinate Elements — The Appositive Word- 

Element 57 

XXIV. Subordinate Elements — The Phrase-Element 59 

XXV. Subordinate Elements — The Phrase-Element 61 

XXVI. Infinitives 63 

XXVII. Infinitives—Participial 65 

XXVIII. Infinitives— Participial — Continued 68 

XXIX. Infinitives — Substantive 69 

XXX. Infinitives — Attributive 71 

XXXI. Infinitives — Exercises in Analysis 73 

XXXII. Infinitives — Exercises in Analysis . . 74 

XXXIII. Miscellaneous Exercises in Analysis 75 

XXXIV. The Classification of the Sentence 76 

XXXV. The Complex Sentence — The Noun Clause 78 

XXXVI. The Complex Sentence— The Adjective Clause .... 79 

XXXVII. The Complex Sentence— The Adverbial Clause ... 81 

XXXVIII. The Partially Compound Sentence 83 

XXXIX. The Compound Sentence 87 

XL. The Sentence — Classification 90 

XLI. Connectives 93 

XLII. Directions for Analysis 96 

XLIII. Some Fragments 97 

XLIV. Exercises in Analysis 101 

XLV. Exercises in Analysis 102 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

XLVI. Exercises in Analysis 103 

XLVII. Exercises in Analysis . 104 

XLVIII. Exercises in Analysis 105 

General Exercises in Analysis 106-122 



PART II. 



I. I._The Noun 123 

II. The Noun — Properties 124 

III. The Noun — Properties, Person and Number 126 

IV. The Noun— Properties— Case 128 

V. The Noun — Exercises in Parsing 130 

VI. II. — The Pronoun — Definition and Classification . . 131 

VII. The Pronoun — Properties 133 

VIII. The Pronoun — Exercises in Parsing 135 

IX. III. — The Verb— Definition and Classification. . . . 137 

X. The Verb— Properties > . . 140 

XI The Verb — Properties — Continued 141 

XII. The Verb — Properties — Mode — Continued 142 

XIII. The Verb— Properties— Tense 143 

XIV. The Verb — Properties — Tense — Continued 145 

XV. The Verb — Exercises in Parsing 146 

XVI. IV. — The*Infinitive — Definition and Classification, 

etc. 148 

XVII. V.— Adjectives 150 

XVIII. VI.— The Adverb 152 

XIX. VII. — Connectives 155 

XX. Connectives — Continued 156 

XXI. VIIL— Exclamatives 158 



CONTENTS 
SUPPLEMENT. 

PAGE 

I. Rules for Spelling Plurals 163 

II. Capital Letters and Punctuation 165 

III. Conjugation of Verbs 165 

IV. Principal Parts of Irregular Verbs 170 

V. Adjectives Irregularly Compared 178 

VI. List of Adverbs— Classified 178 

VII. Connectives — Classified 179 

VIII. Parts of Speech — Definitions 181 



PART (ME 



THE ANALYSIS 

OF THE 

ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

LESSON I. 
DEFINITIONS AND COMMENTS. 

To the Teacher. — The teacher is left to his own resources in the matter 
of devices whereby meanings may be wrought out ; but the definitions that 
follow must be preceded by a clear understanding of their significance, in the 
mind of every pupil. Some time must therefore be given to the first lessons, 
as in these lies the foundation of the course to follow. Each successive lesson 
is built upon the lessons that precede it. Not clearly to possess the first two 
lessons, is to lack a good foundation. Let the teacher select his own device, 
but let him understand that these lessons must be known by the pupil. 

1. A word is the expression of an idea. 

2. An idea is a mind-consciousness or an image of a sub- 
stance, an attribute, a limitation, or a relation. 

Ideas of substances and of attributes constitute the funda- 
mental and the attributive elements of judgments. 

(a) An idea is fundamental when it constitutes the basic 
element of a judgment. 

(b) An idea that constitutes the secondary element in a 
judgment, we may call the attributive element of the judg- 
ment. 

3. Thought is that mind-activity which compares funda- 

ll 



12 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

mental and attributive ideas, and notes that they agree or 
disagree ; that is, that the substance possesses the attri- 
bute or that it does not possess it. 

4. Judgment is the result of that mind-activity called 
thought. It is the mind-decision as to whether the substance 
possesses the attribute. 

Every judgment consists of two essential or principal 
parts, namely : 

1. A fundamental idea — that of which we think — the 
subject of the judgment ; and, 

2. An attributive idea — some attribute, or supposed attri- 
bute, of the subject of the judgment, together with the mind- 
decision of agreement (or disagreement) between these two 
parts, or elements. 

Note — These two elements of a judgment may be simple, or they may 
be complex to almost any degree. However complex they may be, they are 
always traceable to the form — 1, fundamental idea— subject of the judgment, 
and 2, attributive idea — some attribute, or supposed attribute, of the subject 
of the judgment, together with the mind-decision of agreement or of dis- 
agreement between those elements. 



LESSON II. 
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

A judgment consists of two parts, namely: 1. Funda- 
mental Idea — the subject of the judgment, and, 2. Attrib- 
utive Idea — some attribute of the subject of the judgment, 
together with the mind-decision concerning the relation of 
agreement or disagreement between these two elements. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 13 

A sentence is the expression of a judgment. 

Since a sentence is the expression of a judgment it must 
be the expression of the fundamental idea, and of the attribu- 
tive idea, together with the expression of the mind-decision 
concerning the relation existing between these two elements. 

In order, therefore, to be the expression of a judgment, a 
sentence must consist of two essential elements, which we 
may call — 

1. Subject, Latin sub, under and jectum, thrown, placed, 
etc., here meaning, " placed under the action of the mind." 

2. Predicate, Latin prae, before, and dictum, spoken, 
said, declared, asserted — the word " predicate " here meaning, 
"that which asserts agreement." 

Definitions : — 

1. Subject. — The subject of a sentence is the expression 
of the fundamental element of a judgment. 

2. Predicate. — The predicate of a sentence is the expres- 
sion of the attributive element of a judgment and of the 
mind-decision concerning the relation of agreement (or of 
disagreement) between the two essential elements. 

Every predicate consists of the predicator and the thing 
predicated. The word that is the expression of the mind- 
decision asserts the agreement between the attributive 
idea, or element, and the fundamental idea. 

Illustration. — In the sentence, "Sugar is sweet," 
"sugar" is the expression of the fundamental idea, and 
" sweet* v is the expression of the attributive idea, and 
"is" is the expression of the mind-decision of agreement 
between those ideas. 



14 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

" Sugar" is the subject. It is the expression of the 
fundamental element of the judgment. 

" Is sweet " is the predicate. " Sweet " is the expression 
of the attributive element of the judgment, and "is" is the 
expression of the decision of agreement between these two 
ideas. 



Exercise I. — Discuss as above the judgments expressed 
by the following sentences : — 

1. Summer is passing. 6. I am old. 

2. Man is human. 7. John is young. 

3. Truth is divine. 8. Mary is beautiful. 

4. Music is pleasing. 9. Skating is delightful. 

5. Silence is golden. 10. Seeing is believing. 

Exercise II. — Write simple sentences like the above, 
containing only a simple subject and a simple predicate, 
using am, is, are, was, were — the various forms of the 
verb "be" — with the following words as subjects : memory, 
platinum, Are, glass, Hercules, Socrates, appearances, 
writing*, stealing', trying. 

In the nature of our language, the sole power to assert, or 
predicate, lies within the province of the verb "be"; that 
is, in the force of that verb, with its various forms — am, is, 
are, was, were. The force of this verb is often expressed 
by mode or tense auxiliaries, but, tho the form of the verb 
be not always present, without its force, no assertion, or 
predication, can be made. This verb does not express any 
idea that is essential to thinking. It is the means we have 



THE COMPLEX SUBJECT 15 

in oar language of expressing the result of thinking. We 
cannot assert agreements without it. 

Note : — Some of the words chosen above to be used as subjects may 
require that the pupil search the reference books. The exercise that 
calls forth no effort on the part of the pupil is valueless. 



LESSON III. 
THE COMPLEX SUBJECT. 

In Lesson II., we studied only the simplest forms of the 
sentence. These sentences contain only the simple subject 
and the simple predicate. Every sentence in the English 
language must have a subject and a predicate, either ex- 
pressed or implied. Every sentence, however long or involved , 
is resolvable into these two parts. 

1 ' The fragrant roses are opening. ' ' 

Notice that in the above sentence we have more than the 
simple form, " Roses are opening." We have used " the" to 
express the idea of particular roses, and "fragrant" to express 
the idea of an accompanying quality of roses. The essential, 
or fundamental element of the judgment is expressed by 
"roses," while two other subordinate related ideas are ex- 
pressed by "the" and "fragrant," respectively. We now 
have the expression not of a single idea alone, but of a com- 
plex idea. Hence : — 

"The fragrant roses" is the complex subject. It is the 
expression of the complex fundamental idea, or element of 
the judgment. "Roses" is the simple subject. The idea 



16 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

expressed by "roses" is limited by the idea expressed by 
" the," and qualified by the idea expressed by " fragrant." 

Definitions : — 

1. The Simple Subject of a sentence is the expression of 
the simple fundamental element of a judgment. 

2. The Complex Subject of a sentence is the expression of 
the complex fundamental element of the judgment ; that is, 
of the simple fundamental element together with one or more 
subordinate related ideas that limit or qualify the simple 
fundamental element. 



Exercise I. — Write ten sentences containing a complex 
subject and a simple predicate, like the model above. 

Exercise II. — Discuss the following sentences as above, 
reading the sentence, then the complex subject, then the sim- 
ple subject, then the subordinate elements, etc. :— • 

1. The hazy autumn days are coming. 

2. The soft November rain is falling. 
• 3. The winter snows are melting. 

4. The soft April winds are stirring. 

5. Those sweet forget-me-nots are blooming. 

6. That black thunder-cloud is lowering. 

7. The sultry summer days are approaching. 

8. Those ripe, rosy apples are delicious. 

9. Such brutal conduct is intolerable. 
10. My yoke is easy. 



THE COMPLEX PREDICATE 17 

LESSON IV. 

THE COMPLEX PREDICATE. 

" Washington was then commanding there." 
In the foregoing sentence, notice that we have more than 
the simple form, - M Washington was commanding." We 
have used the words " then " and " there " to tell when and 
where Washington was commanding. We now have more 
than is told by the simple form, "was commanding." The 
subordinate related ideas expressed by " then " and " there " 
are added to the simple idea expressed by " commanding." 
Hence, in the expression " was then commanding there," we 
have a complex idea predicated. Therefore, V was then com- 
manding there " is the complex predicate. " Was command- 
ing" is the simple predicate; "commanding" is the ex- 
pression of the simple attributive element of the judgment. 
11 Was " is the expression of the mind-decision of agreement 
between the idea expressed by " commanding " and the idea 
expressed by "Washington." The idea of action expressed 
by " commanding " is limited by the idea expressed by then 
denoting time, and by the idea expressed by there denoting 
place. 

Definitions : — 

1. The Simple Predicate of a sentence is the expression 
of the simple attributive element of a judgment together 
with the assertion of agreement between this attributive ele- 
ment and the fundamental element. 

2. The Complex Predicate of a sentence is the expression 



18 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

of the complex attributive element of a judgment together 
with the assertion of agreement between this complex 
attributive element and the fundamental element. 



Exercise I. — -Write ten sentences containing simple sub- 
jects and complex predicates, like the model above. 

Exercise II. — Discuss, as above, the following senten- 
ces : — 

1. Napoleon was a great warrior. 

2. Socrates was a Greek philosopher. 

3. McKinley was a great American statesman. 

4. Alfred the Great was England's first educator. 

5. Milton was a great epic poet. 

6. Cyril was a powerful Alexandrian priest. 

7. Charlemagne was a giant conqueror. 

8. Hercules was a mythological Greek god. 

9. Nitro-glycerine is a dangerous explosive. 
10. " Order is heaven's first law." 



LESSON V. 

ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM. 

Directions. — First read the sentence ; then read the sub- 
ject and then the predicate of each sentence in the following 
list. Now diagram each sentence as follows : — 



ivy 



green 
The 



is (plant 



dainty 
a 



ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM 19 

1. The green ivy is a dainty plant. 

2. The blue heavens are smiling to-day. 

3. Ants are the busiest little animals. 

4. The Holy Bible is the Christian's guide. 

5. The joyous springtime is coming again. 

6. Is the procession coming now? 

7. Lincoln was our mightiest chieftain. 

8. Hope is the good man's inspiration. 

9. Bright, fleecy clouds are floating slowly northward. 
10. Is the lesson very difficult to-day? 

Definitions : — 

1. Analysis in grammar is a study of the relations exist- 
ing between the ideas expressed by the words composing the 
sentence. 

The word " analysis," comes from the two Greek words 
ana, again, and lusis, a loosing, an unbinding, a separation. 
Hence the old definition, "Analysis is the separation of a 
sentence into its parts." 

This literal definition is faulty, to say the least ; for 
hardly is there, in any sense, a " separation of the sentence 
into its parts." Real analysis is a study of the relations of 
the ideas expressed by the words of the sentence, presuppos- 
ing, of course, that the meanings of those words are already 
known. 

2. A Diagram in grammar is a graphic picture by which 
the groups of words expressing related ideas may be held 
before the eye. 

The diagram is a mere device by which the pupil may put 



20 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

the expression of relations into permanent form, so that the 
eye may assist the mind in recognizing the relations ex- 
pressed. 

Analysis and the diagram are not an end, but a means, in 
the study of language. Both are subservient to this purpose, 
namely — to assist the student in securing a complete posses- 
sion of the judgment expressed by the sentence, thru a 
clear perception of the exact relations of the ideas expressed 
by the different parts of the sentence. 



LESSON VI. 

THE NOMINATIVE ATTRIBUTE. 

An attribute (Latin, ad, to or toward, and tribuere, give, 
assign, pay) is that which may be assigned to, or which 
belongs to, a thing. 

"Nominative" (Latin, nomen, name, or nomino, I 
name) means "pertaining to that which names." In gram- 
mar, the term "nominative" is applied to the noun, or 
substantive substitute, when used to express the funda- 
mental element of a judgment. 

The Nominative Attribute is, therefore, the expression of 
the idea of some attribute of the person or thing named by 
the subject, between which attribute and the subject agree- 
ment is asserted by the predicate verb. 

Illustrations : — 

1. In the sentence, "Henry is a shoemaker,' J "shoe- 



THE NOMINATIVE ATTRIBUTE 21 

maker" is the complement of the predicate; and since it is 
the expression of the idea of an attribute of the person 
named by the subject "Henry," it is a "nominative 
attribute." 

2. In the sentence, " Roses are beautiful," " beautiful " 
is the complement of the predicate; and since "beautiful" 
is the expression of the idea of an attribute of the thing 
named by the subject "roses," it is a "nominative 
attribute." 

3. In the sentence, "Summer is passing," "passing" 
is the complement of the predicate ; and since " passing" is 
the expression of the idea of an attribute of the thing named 
by the subject, "summer," it is a " nominative attribute." 

Hence, from the nature of the attribute, as above illus- 
trated, we observe that there are three kinds, namely : — 

1. Substantive Attribute — the use of a noun as nomina- 
tive attribute, to tell to what class the thing named by the 
subject belongs ; as, " Henry is a shoemaker." 

2. Attribute of Quality — the use of an adjective as nomi- 
native attribute to express the idea of some quality of 
the person or thing named by the subject; as, "Roses are 
beautiful." 

3. Attribute of Action — the use of an infinitive as 
nominative attribute, to express the idea of some action (or 
state) of the person or thing named by the subject ; as, 
Summer is passing*. 

Note 1. — Of the above illustrations, the first is called by most gram- 
marians the " predicate noun, " the second the " predicate adjective." The 
third may be called the "predicate infinitive," for it must have a name 



22 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

in the same category. The word "passing," is an infinitive. It is the 
expression of an idea of action without a governing word. 

Note 2. —In the predicate of the sentence, "The summer is passing," 
"passing" is the expression of an idea of action without the limitation 
of the person and number of the subject "summer." Hence, "passing" is 
an infinitive. In the same sentence, "is," a form of the verb "be," is 
governed by the person and number of the subject, and is therefore the verb 
of the predicate. 



Exercise I. — Write four sentences using nouns as 
nominative attributes, four using adjectives as nomi- 
native attributes, and four using infinitives as nominative 
attributes. 

Exercise II. — Write similar sentences using the follow- 
ing words as nominative attributes : Singing*, entrancing*, 
musician, philosopher, radiant, picturesque. 

Exercise III. — Diagram and analyze the following 
sentences : — 

1. The November rain is quietly falling. 

2. Springtime sunshine is always very welcome. 

3. The Great Sahara is a vast sandy desert. 

4. The enemy's hosts were stealthily approaching. 

5. Are you going away to-day? 

6. A summer thunder-storm was raging violently. 

7. The prisoner was a notorious criminal. 

8. That stranger's behavior is very mysterious. 

9. Mankind is ever learning. 
10. Sin is degrading. 



THE NOMINATIVE ATTKIBUTE 23 

LESSON VII. 
THE NOMINATIVE ATTRIBUTE— Continued. 

There is another class of verbs which have the power, in a 
certain use, to assert the agreement between the fundamental 
and the atttributive elements of a judgment. These verbs, 
however, assert with the power of the verb "be." But, 
instead of asserting the agreement as a positive fact, they 
rest the degree of certainty of agreement upon the determin- 
ing power of one (or more) of the " special senses." 

The " special senses " are the avenues by which the soul 
dwelling within the body receives those sensations which 
are translated by the mind into ideas of sight, sound, smell, 
taste and touch. The verbs look, sound, smell, taste, and 
feel are used to assert agreement between the subject and 
attributes depending for their certainty, as such, upon the 
senses of sight, hearing, smelling, tasting and feeling. 

Illustration : — 

In the sentence, "The elephant looks unwieldy," 
"looks " is used to assert the agreement between the ideas 
expressed by " unwieldy " and " elephant," not as a positive 
fact, but as a fact depending for its degree of certainty of 
agreement upon the " sense of sight." 

Such is the real nature of the assertions made by all of 
the foregoing "verbs of sense," or " sense verbs." 

These same verbs are sometimes used with the full force 
of " attributive verbs." Then they have the significance of 



24 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

other transitive or intransitive verbs. (The Attributive Verb 
will receive due attention in succeeding lessons.) 



Exercise I. — Compose five original sentences using the 
five " sense verbs " as predicate verbs to express agreements. 

Exercise II. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences, and give a close and full discussion of the nature and 
power of the verbs used : — 
tiger 



Bengal 
The 



looks (ferocious 



very 



1. The Bengal tiger looks very ferocious. 

2. The Indian's glittering eyes looked treacherous. 

3. That young man's voice sounds very familiar. 

4. The young girl's voice sounds tremulous. 

5. Those rosy apples taste delicious. 

6. Sulphate of quinine tastes very bitter. 

7. The Lily of the Valley smells fragrant. 

8. The pear blossom smells unpleasant. 

9. New silken velvet feels quite smooth. 
10. That surface felt rough. 



LESSON VIII. 

THE NOMINATIVE ATTRIBUTE— Continued. 

The words " seems " and "appears" are used also to 
express decisions of agreement between the fundamental and 



THE NOMINATIVE ATTRIBUTE 25 

the attributive elements of judgments. They differ in nature 
from the list in the preceding lesson, in that they seem to 
depend for the certainty of the agreement they assert, not 
upon the evidence of any one special sense, but upon a partial 
conclusion resulting from the exercise of several of the senses. 
Possibly ''appears" is related in meaning to the verb 
11 looks" in the list given in Lesson VII. 

There are many attributive verbs (see The Verb, in Part 
II.) that are also used to assert agreement. AVhen their chief 
value is to make the assertion of agreement between the fun- 
damental and the attributive elements of the judgment, they 
may at the same time retain much of their force as attributive 
verbs. Some verbs used in this way signify continuance or 
progress. 

Illustration : — 

In the sentence, " The boy becomes a man," " becomes" 
not only asserts the agreement, but it also denotes the prog- 
ress of the person named by the subject "boy" toward or into 
identity with the condition or state expressed by the nomina- 
tive attribute " man." 

In structure, the above sentence is like the sentence, 
" The boy is a man." This latter sentence is not true, in the 
nature of things, as the fundamental idea expressed by 
" boy " cannot be identical with the attributive idea expressed 
by " man," except by the exercise of poetic license. 

The two sentences differ in real meaning. In the first 
sentence the verb "becomes" denotes the progress of the 
fundamental idea expressed by " boy" toward or into iden- 
tity with the attributive idea, expressed by " man." 



26 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Exercise I. — Write sentences using the following verbs 
to assert agreement between the essential elements of the 
judgments expressed: seems, appears, becomes, became, 
appeared, seemed, came, went, lived, died. 

Exercise II. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences, and closely study the meaning and use of the verbs in 
this use : — 

They I departed (friends 

I yesterday fast 

1. They departed yesterday fast friends. 

2. They returned to-day mortal enemies. 

3. Raleigh became Elizabeth's favorite. 

4. Her name continues spotless. 

5. He lives beloved. 

6. That pupil remains standing. 

7. Sir Philip Sidney died a hero. 

8. Christ arose a mighty conqueror. 

9. My beloved mother grows feeble. 
10. Washington became a great general. 

Note. — Still another phase of the Nominative Attribute will be con- 
sidered hereafter in connection with the passive voice of certain transitive 
verbs, called " Factitive Verbs " and " Verbs of Mental Action." 



LESSON IX. 
THE ATTRIBUTIVE VERB IN PREDICATE. 

The Attributive Verb is of a twofold nature. By it we 
may express the idea of an attribute of action and also 



THE ATTRIBUTIVE VERB IN PREDICATE 27 

assert the agreement existing .between this attribute and the 
subject, or the subjective recipient of the action. 
Attributive verbs are of two kinds by nature : — 

1. Intransitive, when used to express the idea of an action 
attribute that is not received by some object, and to assert 
the agreement between this attribute and its subject. 

2. Transitive, when used to express the idea of an action 
attribute that is received by some object, and to assert the 
agreement between this attribute and its subject. The stu- 
dent should keep these distinctions very clearly in mind. 

Illustration : — 

1. In the sentence, "The pupils study," li study " equals 
"are studying," in force of expression, the ing-infinitive, 
" studying," expressing the attributive idea (action), and the 
verb "are" (form of the verb "be") asserting the agree- 
ment between this attribute and its subject. 

Every attributive verb has this double nature, or power — 
that of expressing an idea of action as an attribute of its 
subject, and that of asserting the agreement between this 
attribute and its subject. 

Note 1. — In stating that the verb "study" equals the expression "are 
studying, ' ' we mean to show the expressive and assertive force of the verb 
"study. " Such verbs have the power to express ideas of action as attributes 
of their subjects, and to assert the agreement between these attributes and 
their subjects. 

Note 2. — All such verbs as runs, flies, swims, etc., are of this twofold 
nature : thus, runs equals is running, flies equals is flying, sivims equals is 
swimming, etc. 

In this lesson we shall discuss only the intransitive verbs. 



28 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Exercise I. — Write twenty attributive verbs that are 
intransitive. 

Exercise II. — Compose ten sentences using intransitive 
verbs, with word modifiers only. 

Exercise III. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences. (Note model for analysis given below.) 



humming-bird 



beautiful 
The 



flies 



swiftly 



1. The beautiful humming-bird flies swiftly. 

2. Loud-mouthed cannon boom defiantly. 

3. The ocean waves dash tumultuously. 

4. The stately ship sails gallantly away. 

5. The defeated army retires reluctantly. 

6. The winter winds howled dismally. 

7. Heavy, darkening clouds lowered threateningly. 

8. All the church bells ring joyously. 

9. Seven great business houses failed that day. 

10. The extensive forests of America vanish swiftly. 

Model for Analysis : — 

" The beautiful humming-bird flies swiftly." — "The beau- 
tiful humming-bird" is the complex subject. It is the expres- 
sion of the complex fundamental element of the judgment. 

M Humming-bird " is the simple subject. It is the expres- 
sion of the simple fundamental element of the judgment. 

The idea expressed by "humming-bird" is limited by 



THE ATTRIBUTIVE VERB— TRANSITIVE 29 

the idea expressed by "the," and qualified by the idea 
expressed by "beautiful." 

"Flies swiftly" is the complex predicate. It is the 
expression of the complex attributive element of the judg- 
ment together with the expression of the mind-decision of 
agreement. 

" Flies " is the simple predicate. 

The idea of action expressed by " flies " (flying) is quali- 
fied by the idea expressed by "swiftly," denoting the 
manner of the flying. 



LESSON X. 

THE ATTRIBUTIVE VERB— TRANSITIVE. 

The Transitive Attributive Verb expresses an idea of 
action that is received by some person or thing, and asserts 
the agreement between this action attribute and its subject. 

This idea of action is an attribute of the person or thing 
named by the subject, hence it is a Nominative Attribute. 

The Transitive Attributive Verb expresses an idea of 
some action of its subject which is shown to be received by 
some object, or it expresses the idea of an action of some 
other agent, which has been received by its subject. 

Hence, a Transitive Attributive Verb is :— 

1. " Active," when it expresses the idea of some action 
of its subject, and this action is shown to be received by some 
object ; or, 

2. "Passive," when its perfect infinitive expresses an 



30 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

idea of action that has been received by its subject from 
some other agency. 
Illustrations : — 

1. In the sentence, " The wind shook the trees," "shook" 
(was shaking) expresses an idea of action of its subject, 
which is seen to be received by the object designated by 
" trees." " Shook" is therefore a transitive attributive verb 
in the active voice. 

2. In the sentence, " The trees were shaken by the wind," 
" were " asserts the action expressed by the perfect infinitive 
"shaken" as received by the subject, "trees," from the 
agent, "wind. "Were shaken," therefore, constitutes a 
transitive attributive verb in the passive voice. 



Exercise I. — Write a list of twenty transitive attributive 
verbs. 

Exercise II. — Write ten sentences using the transitive 
verb in the active voice. 

Exercise III.— Write the same sentences again, expressing 
their meaning with the verb in the passive voice. Note what 
becomes of the former object that received the act, also of the 
former subject. 

Exercise IV. — Diagram the following sentences and 
analyze them according to the model given below : — 



John 



writes 

letters 



1. John writes letters. 

2, The good boy loves his mother. 



THE ATTRIBUTIVE VERB— TRANSITIVE 31 

3. The careless maid spilled the milk. 

4. British soldiers burned Washington City. 

5. The Americans defeated the Hessians. 
6'. The sun softens the snow. 

7. The train makes a deafening noise. 

8. Winter brings its icy treasures. 

9. The heavy rains deluged the valley. 
10. The Americans won a decisive victory. 

Model for Analysis : — 

11 John writes letters." 

" John " is the subject ; it is the expression of the funda- 
mental element of the judgment. 

"Writes letters" is the complex predicate; it is the 
expression of the complex attributive element of the judg- 
ment together with the mind-decision of agreement between 
these two elements. 

"Writes" is the simple predicate. The idea of action 
expressed by "writes" (writing) is limited by the idea 
expressed by "letters," denoting the direct recipient 
(receiver) of the action — direct object. It receives the action 
directly from the subject. 

Note. —In truth, the " activity " or " passivity," in the real sense, is in 
the subject — is in the fundamental element of the judgment, and not in the 
verb at all. The verb, however, is changed in form when the idea of the 
objective recipient of the action is made the fundamental element of the 
judgment, and vice versa. And, because the verb undergoes this change in 
form, grammarians see fit to discuss the ' 'Active Voice" and the " Passive 
Voice" of the transitive verb, which is correct. The real significance of 
" voice " of verbs should be clearly understood by the pupil. 



32 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

LESSON XI. 

THE OBJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE. 

Illustrations : — 

1. In the sentence, " They elected McKinley President," 
"President" is a basic element of the direct object. It is 
the expression of an attribute of the person named by 
McKinley, a substantive attribute. It is an attribute not of 
the subject " they," but of McKinley, the objective recipient 
of the action. It is, therefore, an objective attribute. It is 
the result of the action of the persons designated by " they," 
upon the person named by " McKinley." 

2. In the sentence, "We made her happy," "happy" is 
a basic element of the direct object ; it expresses the idea of 
an attribute of the person named by "her " — an attribute of 
quality. It is an attribute not of the subject "we," but of 
"her," the objective recipient of the action. Therefore, it is 
an objective attribute, and this objective attribute is the 
result of the action of the persons designated by the subject, 
"we," upon the person named by "her." 

3. In the sentence, "They made him write," "write" is 
a basic element of the direct object. It is the expression of 
an action attribute. It is an attribute not of the subject, 
"they," but of " him," the objective recipient of the action. 
It is therefore an objective attribute, and this attribute is the 
result of the action of the persons named by "they," upon 
the person designated by "him." 

In the above sentences it is noted that the objective attri- 
bute may be : — 



THE OBJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE 33 

1. A noun— substantive — They elected McKinley presi- 
dent. 

2. An adjective — quality — -We made her happy. 

3. An infinitive — action — They made him write. 

This double object is a simple element, yet it is double in 
its nature. It is not double in the sense of being compound, 
but in constituting a complete objective element only in the 
use of the two parts together. 

It is properly called a " double object," as it is a distinct 
element of neither a complex nor a compound nature. 
"Complex element" implies a basic element qualified, lim- 
ited, or intensified by an element or elements subordinate in 
rank to the basic element. "Compound element" implies 
two or more elements of the same rank used co-ordinately 
and cojoined. The element under consideration is unlike 
either of these. It is simply double in its nature, though a 
simple element. Hence it is properly called a "double object. ' ' 

In the sentences to follow, such verbs as make, choose, 
call, elect, etc., are used. Such words used in the active 
voice are, in this use, in the sentence followed by the double 
object ; that is, by the direct object and some attribute of the 
direct object used together as one element. 

In each of the foregoing sentences, the objective attribute 
is the result of some action of the persons named by the sub- 
ject word, upon the person named as receiving the action. 
On this account, some writers have called the objective attri- 
bute the "resultant object." Others, because the objective 
attribute is, as they claim, though erroneously, an essential 
part of the thing predicated, and is therefore a complement 



34 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

of the predicate, have called it the " objective complement." 
Still others, because this element follows verbs of calling", 
making 1 , electing", choosing*, etc., that is, " factitive verbs," 
have called it the "factitive object"; from the Latin verb 
facio, to make. 

However, no one of these names properly designates the 
element under consideration ; for these names apply to only 
one of the two inseparable parts of the element. 

We should call it the "Double Object," as it consists of 
the direct object and the objective attribute, forming jointly 
the unit of this particular element. 

This Double Object consists of the expression of the fun- 
damental element and of the attributive element of the sub- 
ordinate judgment expressed by the objective clause, the 
assertion of agreement between these elements having been 
dropped in the abridgment of the clause. In this abridg- 
ment, the subject of the clause becomes the object of the 
verb, and because its subject is now objective, the former 
attribute is objective, following the case of its subject. 
Sometimes these parts retain their former modifiers. Some- 
times an infinitive fragment of the verb of the objective 
clause remains. Neither of these, however, will interfere 
with the above discussion of the Double Object, as the essen- 
tial point is the consideration of the nature of the basic parts 
of this element, and of its relation to the other parts of the 
sentence in which it occurs. 



Exercise I. — Write ten sentences to illustrate the Objec- 
tive Attribute. 



THE OBJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE 35 

Exercise II. — Diagram the following sentences, and 
analyze them according to the model given below : — 



They 



called 

him (John. 



1. They called him John. 

2. I called him father. 

3. The king dubbed him knight. 

4. The grass made the field green. 

5. They appointed her uncle guardian. 

6. The teacher painted the board black. 

7. The baker baked the bread brown. 

8. The teacher made the pupil study. 

9. The President appointed Irving ambassador. 
10. The sun painted the evening sky crimson. 

Model for Analysis — the Double Object. 

"The j called him John." 

"They" is the subject; it is the expression of the funda- 
mental element of the judgment. 

"Called him John" is the complex predicate; it is the 
expression of the complex attributive element of the judgment 
together with the assertion of the agreement. 

"Called " is the simple predicate. The idea of action 
expressed by "called" (calling) is limited by the double idea 
expressed by "him John," the Double Object. "Him" 
denotes the direct recipient of the action, (direct object), and 
"John" denotes the result of the action, ("objective attri- 
bute"). 



36 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

LESSON XII. 
THE OBJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE— Continued. 

There are various kinds of verbs used to predicate which 
take the Double Object. In the case of the nominative attri- 
bute, not only are pure copulative verbs used to make the 
assertions of agreement, but a number of verbs more or less 
removed from the nature of the pure copulative verbs is used ; 
as, for instance, the "sense verbs." 

In the study of the English language we frequently 
encounter such expressions as these : "We thought him wise," 
"The merchant considered it a safe venture, "They saw the 
man fall," etc., etc. We see in these expressions some like- 
ness in use to the verbs "appears," "seems," etc. ; that is, 
we note a strong similarity between the nature of the verbs 
used to assert agreement where we gave special notice to the 
nominative attribute, and that of the verbs used to make asser- 
tions in sentences in which the objective attribute occurs. In 
the latter case, we note that not only are pure factitive verbs 
used to predicate, but also a number of impure factitive verbs ; 
that is, " verbs of mental action. " 

The verbs, "consider," "saw," "thought," "suppose," 
etc., are properly called "verbs of mental action," by Latin 
grammarians. We may make the statement that "Factitive 
Verbs and Verbs of Mental Action" express ideas of action 
that may be limited by the Double Object. 

We have seen that there are, from their nature, three 
kinds of Nominative Attributes, namely : — 

1. Substantive. 



THE OBJECTIVE ATTEIBUTE 3? 

2. Adjective. 

3. Infinitive. 

When we examine the Objective Attribute, we note that, 
from its nature, there are likewise three kinds, namely : — 

1. Substantive. 

2. Adjective. 

3. Infinitive. 

This likeness is owing to the fact that the Objective 
Attribute is derived from the Nominative Attribute of the 
objective clause, the attribute becoming objective when its 
subject becomes objective by the abridgment of the objective 
clause. 

Exercise I. — Write ten sentences in which the Double 
Object occurs, using the following verbs : call, elect, choose, 
appoint, consider, suppose, believe, think, see, hear. 

Exercise II. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. Santa Claus makes the children happy. 

2. The setting sun makes the sky crimson. 

3. David struck Goliath dead. 

4. He baked the bread brown. 

5. We supposed him a thief. 

6. Our forefathers elected Washington the first President. 

7. They painted the shutters green. 

8. The teacher made the idle boy study. 

9. Rene thought the young Sultan an Arabian story-teller. 
10. The committee pronounced his course wisely chosen. 

Note. — See models for diagram and analysis in previous lesson. 



38 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

LESSON XIII. 

THE NOMINATIVE ATTRIBUTE. 

In tne preceding lesson, it may be noted that the verb 
occurs only in the active voice, the verb in each sentence 
being transitive. In this lesson we shall examine the same 
verbs in the passive voice, and note the consequences of the 
change from the active voice to the passive voice on the 
Objective Attribute and also on the entire Double Object. . 

Illustration : — 

In the sentence, "We elected Mary queen," let us put 
the verb into the passive voice. As explained in the discus- 
sion of the transitive attributive verb in a former lesson, the 
objective recipient of the action becomes the subject of the 
verb. Thus : — 

" Mary was elected queen (by us)." 

Note that the former subject of the verb, "we," is now, 
a£ before, the agent of the action of electing, but that it is no 
longer the subject. " Mary " is the expression of the funda- 
mental element of the judgment, and "queen" is now, as 
before, the expression of an attribute of the person named by 
" Mary." But, as " Mary " is now the subject of the verb, 
that is, nominative, " queen " is no longer the expression of 
the objective attribute, but of an attribute of the subject 
nominative ; that is, a Nominative Attribute. 

The passive verb, " w^as elected," not only asserts the 
agreement between the ideas expressed by "queen" and 
"Mary," by the power of the verb "be" ("was"), but 



THE NOMINATIVE ATTRIBUTE 39 

designates by the perfect infinitive, " elected," the process 
by which "Mary" became possessed of the new attribute 
expressed by " queen." 



Exercise I. — Rewrite the list of sentences in the pre- 
ceding lesson, but change the verbs from the active to the 
passive voice, and note the corresponding change in the 
other parts of the sentences. 

Exercise II. — Diagram the following sentences, and 
analyze them according to the model given below : — 



Hamlet 



was (considered (insane. 



1. Hamlet was considered insane. 

2/ Washington Irving w^as chosen ambassador. 

3. Captivity was led captive. 

4. His enemy was struck dead. 

5. The idle pupil was made work. 

6. Julius Caesar was hailed emperor. 

7. Victoria was crowned queen. 

8. I was summoned a witness.. 

9. The Jews were carried away captive. 
10. The ship was anchored safe. 

Model for Analysis : — 
" John was chosen captain." 

u John " is the subject ; it is the expression of the funda- 
mental element of the judgment. 

"Was chosen captain" is the simple predicate ; 



40 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

' 'captain" is the expression of the simple attributive 
element of the judgment; "was" is the expression of the 
mind-decision of agreement between these two elements ; 
"chosen" is the expression of the idea of the process by 
which "John" became possessed of the new attribute 
expressed by "captain." 



LESSON XIV. 
THE DOUBLE OBJECT. 



In connection with this subject, we wish to consider such 
expressions as the following : — 

" We supposed him to be scholarly." 

In this sentence, "to be" is an infinitive — a fragment 
resulting from the contraction, or abridgment, of the object- 
ive clause. In the entire list of sentences given in Lessons 
XI and XII, the " objective attribute" is the final fragment 
resulting from this contraction, or abridgment, of the object- 
ive clause ; and each may be considered the complement of 
the "Infinitive with subject accusative," which occurs so 
frequently in the Latin oratio obliqua, or indirect discourse. 
In all such cases, frequently occurring in English also, the 
attribute, whether substantive, adjective, or infinitive, is the 
essential result of the contraction, so far as the predicate of 
the objective clause is concerned. 

Whether this infinitive expression be short or long, it is 
only the representative of the verb that was used in the 
predicate of the objective clause before its abridgment. 



THE INDIRECT OBJECT 41 

Illustration by Comparison of Forms : — 

1. We thought that she was giddy, — objective clause. 

2. We thought her to be giddy, — clause partly abridged. 

3. We thought her giddy, — final abridgment of clause. 



Exercise I. — Study, diagram, and analyze the following 
sentences, according to the models given in Lessons XI and 
XII :— 

teacher I thought 

The idea (to be) (foolish. 

the 

1. The teacher thought the idea to be foolish. 

2. The soldiers thought retreating to be surrendering. 

3. Napoleon thought to retreat to be to surrender. 

4. Imagination makes a mole hill a mountain. 

5. The boy's fancy makes the broomstick a real pony. 

6. Many stars are supposed to be suns. 

7. The lesson was thought to be difficult. 

8. The indolent pupil believed the lesson to be difficult. 

9. Prolonged inactivity will make a strong arm weak. 
10. Americans call New York the Empire State. 



LESSON XV. 

THE INDIRECT OBJECT. 

"Verbs of giving" may take two objects, one a direct 
object and the other an indirect object. The person or 



42 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

thing to which, and sometimes for which, a thing is given , 
or done, is the indirect recipient of the act of "doing," or 
"giving," and is on this account called an "indirect 
object." 

Illustration : — 

1. In the sentence, " Mary gave her mother a book," 
"Mary" did not give her mother, but "Mary" gave a 
" book " to her mother. " Book " is the name of the direct 
recipient of the act of giving— the direct object; while 
" mother" is the name of the indirect recipient of the action 
— the indirect object. 

2. In the sentence, "Mary works for the society," 
"society" is the name of the indirect recipient of the 
action expressed by "works." 

The " Indirect Object " is called by some grammarians 
the "Dative Object," from the fact that the "verbs of 
giving" in the Latin language take the "dative case," 
meaning the person or thing "to or for " which a thing is 
given or done. The " dative case " of the Latin, excepting 
the idiomatic uses of that case, corresponds to the " Indirect 
Object/' or the "Dative Object" of the English language. 
The name " Dative " is derived from the perfect participle 
of the Latin verb do, I give. 

Some difficulty is encountered by young students in dis- 
criminating between the indirect object and the adverb of 
purpose, when " for " is used to express the relation between 
the related idea and the idea of action which the indirect 
object limits. 



THE INDIRECT OBJECT 43 

Illustration : — 

In the sentence, "I wrote a message for my sister," 
"sister" is the indirect object when it means "I wrote a 
message instead of my sister" — that she might not have to 
write it. " For my sister" is adverbial when it expresses 
the purpose of my writing. Further — " for my sister " may 
be an adjective expression telling the kind of message. 



Exercise I. — Write ten sentences to illustrate the In- 
direct Object, selecting for part of the list some other verbs 
than pure " verbs of giving " — " dative verbs." 

Exercise II. — Diagram the following sentences and an- 
alyze them according to the model given below. 

He | giveth 



to ground rain 
parched 
the 

1. He giveth rain to the parched ground. 

2. They offered Caesar the crown. 

3. John spoke to me. 

4. He giveth his beloved sleep. 

5. The children gave their teacher a beautiful bouquet. 

6. The three witches gave Macbeth a delusive answer. 

7. The employer paid the man his wages. 

8. Dorcas gave clothing to the poor. 

9. " Will he give him a stone? " 
10. I gave the beggar a coin. 



44 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

LESSON XVI. 

THE ADVERBIAL OBJECT, 

Still another kind of element in the English language 
deserves special attention. This element has, to the idea of 
the action which it limits, scarcely the relation of a real ob- 
ject. It is closely allied to the ordinary adverbial element. 
Still it has a peculiar form and significance. Probably the 
best reason for calling it " objective " at all is, that it cor- 
responds to the use of the " accusative " (objective) case in 
Latin, to denote "duration of time " and "extent of space." 

Illustrations: — 

In the sentence, "He traveled many miles," "many 
miles ' ' is the expression of the idea of distance — c ' extent 
of space " — he traveled. " Miles " may, in a doubtful sense, 
denote the recipient of the action expressed by " walked " 
(walking), and thus lay claim to the " objective case." 

2. In the sentence, " The President receives fifty thousand 
dollars a year," " a year " is the expression of the idea of the 
' ' duration of time ' ' of the service for which the President 
receives fifty thousand dollars. The idea of an " objective M 
in any sense is still less easily discernible in this case. 
Yet it is of that group of elements that are called, or should 
be called, the " adverbial object." 

3. In the sentence " I gave him a dollar a bushel for his 
wheat," "a bushel" is the expression of the "extent of 
space " — the measure of a dollar's worth of wheat. This 
element is alike an " adverbial object." 



THE ADVERBIAL OBJECT 45 

The foregoing examples, however, are not purely adver- 
bial, nor are they purely objective. They occupy the middle 
ground between the Indirect Object and the purely adverbial 
element. The old Latin writers gave the basic noun of such 
elements the accusative case-form. And this may be the 
best reason for using the term " objective " to designate them. 
They form a peculiar group, and should therefore have a 
designation separate from the pure objectives, as well as from 
the pure adverbs. For lack of a better name, we adopt the 
term "Adverbial Object." 



Exercise I. — Illustrate the "Adverbial Object" by ten 
original sentences. 

Exercise II. — Diagram the following sentences, and 
analyze them according to the model given below : — 



Raleigh 



was (prisoner 



x years a 
twelve 

1. Raleigh was a prisoner twelve years. 

2. Congressmen receive five thousand dollars a year. 

3. I paid the seamstress a dollar a spool. 

4. The wheat cost a dollar a bushel. 

5. James receives a dollar a day. 

6. Jacob served Laban seven years. 

7. That train traveled sixty miles an hour. 

8. The snow fell fast all night long. 

9. My friend remained abroad one whole year. 
10. All his life morbid fancies enslaved him. 



46 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Model for Analysis — the " Adverbial Object." 

11 Jacob served Laban seven years." 

" Jacob" is the subject; it is the expression of the fun- 
damental element of the judgment. 

" Served Laban seven years " is the complex predicate ; it 
is the expression of the complex attributive element of the 
judgment together with the mind-decision of agreement be- 
tween this attributive element and the fundamental element. 

"Served" is the simple predicate. The idea of action 
expressed by " served" (serving), is limited by the idea 
expressed by " Laban," the direct recipient of the action — 
direct object. The idea of action expressed by " served" is 
further limited by the complex idea expressed by ' ' seven 
years," denoting the "duration of time" of the serving — 
adverbial object. 



LESSON XVII. 
THE APPOSITIVE ELEMENT. 

The word " appositive" (Latin ad, to, and positum, placed 
or put), means " applied to," or " placed near by." This 
name has been given to those nouns that are used to desig- 
nate definitely the person or thing named, by telling the 
trade, calling, or profession, or some well-known peculiarity, 
trait, or characteristic of the person or thing named. 

Some writers happily call this element an " explanatory 
modifier." 



THE APPOSITIVE ELEMENT 47 

Illustration : — 

In the sentence, "Peter the hermit resembled Peter the 
apostle," " hermit" and "apostle" clearly designate the two 
persons named by expressing the idea of the peculiar habit of 
the one, and the special endowment of the other. The 
appositive element expresses in a specific way what person 
or thing is meant by the noun with which it is in apposition. 

To call the appositive an " explanatory modifier," which 
it really is, will necessitate giving it a special class name as 
a subordinate element in sentence-construction. Then, if 
this element is subordinate to the noun with which it is 
in apposition, it will not be "by apposition in the same case," 
as that would rank a subordinate element with an element 
to which it is subordinate. 

The appositive noun is purely descriptive, or possibly 
definitive in some measure. The expression, "John the 
blacksmith," unquestionably means "the blacksmith John," 
and no other "John." 

The appositive lies, as an element, between the noun, in 
its plain use as a noun, and the descriptive adjective. The 
"case" of the appositive is peculiar to itself. Its "case" 
may or may not be noted. If it be noted at all, it is just as 
well to call it the "appositive case" ; for the relation, not the 
form, is the really significant thing. 

English grammarians speak of the " appositive " as being 
"in the same case by apposition" as the noun to which it 
is joined. This, so far as we are able to determine, is 
based on no better foundation than that, in the Latin, such 
nouns agree in case-form with the nouns with which they 



48 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

are so used. This means a subjection to form. Every 
Latin student knows that we might call the Latin adjectives 
" appositives," and place them "by apposition" in the same 
case for the same reason. 



Exercise I. — Illustrate the Appositive Element by ten 
original sentences. 

Exercise II. — Diagram the following sentences and ana- 
lyze them according to the model given below : — 

Whittier 



(Quaker Poet) 
the 



wrote 

l "Snow-Bound." 



1. Whittier, the Quaker Poet, wrote "Snow-Bound." 

2. Americans revere the name "Washington." 

3. Mohammed the prince became Mohammed the sultan. 

4. Dickens, the novelist, visited America. 

5. Raleigh, the courtier, became Elizabeth's favorite. 

6. Misery, the drunkard's wife's dower, drove her insane. 

7. " Gitche Manito, the Mighty, called the tribes . . . 
together." 

8. Milton, the blind poet, wrote "Paradise Lost," the 
greatest English epic. 

9. Caesar, Rome's great warrior, refused the crown. 
10. We saw that great warship, the " Oregon." 

Model for Analysis — the Appositive. 
"Lincoln, the martyred President, was once a rail- 
splitter." 



EXERCISES IN SYNTAX 49 

"Lincoln, the martyred President," is the complex sub- 
ject ; it is the expression of the complex fundamental element 
of the judgment. "Lincoln" is the simple subject. The 
idea expressed by " Lincoln" is limited by the complex idea 
expressed by "the martyred President," a complex appositive 
element. Of this element, "President" is the base. The 
idea expressed by " President" is limited by the idea 
expressed by " the," and qualified by the idea expressed by 
" martyred." 

(The analysis of the remaining part of the sentence is a 
repetition of that shown in the model analysis of the Nomina- 
tive Attribute.) 

LESSON XVIII. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

The word "syntax" comes from two Greek words — syn, 
together, and tassein, to arrange. 

The word " composition" comes from two Latin words — 
com (from con, by euphony), together, and positum, 
placed. 



Exercise I. — Write ten original sentences to illustrate 
the Nominative Attribute. 

Exercise II. — Write ten original sentences to illustrate 
the Direct Object. 

Exercise III. — Write ten original sentences to illustrate 
the Double Object. 



50 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Exercise IV. — Write ten original sentences to illustrate 
the Indirect Object. 

Exercise V. — Write ten original sentences f to illustrate 
the Adverbial Object. 

Exercise VI. — Write ten original sentences to illustrate 
the Appositive Element. 



LESSON XIX. 
EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

The word ''analysis" comes from two Greek words- 
ana, again, and lusis, from luein, to unbind, to loose, to set 
free. Hence the old definition, "Analysis is the separation 
of a sentence into its parts." However, the term "analy- 
sis" but poorly designates the real process of analysis in the 
best sense. 

The study of the ideas expressed by words, and of the 
relations of these ideas in the judgment expressed by the 
sentence, is what the term used to designate this process 
should comprehend. A faulty terminology, along with a far 
more faulty application of the term, has long been a severe 
drawback to the progress of thought. 



Exercise I. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences according to the models already learned : — 

1. They pronounced him a traitor. 

2. The house was neatly furnished. 

3. This bud will become a beautiful flower. 

4. The spring freshets were very disastrous. 



SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS 51 

5. Summer brings us many pleasures. 

6. " Evil communications corrupt good manners.' ' 

7. The soldier considered himself an excellent marksman. 

8. The pupils obeyed the teacher's directions. 

9. Robert Burns, the poet, was a Scotchman. 

10. " Each morning sees some task begin." 

11. The ragged little news-boy sold me a paper. 

12. Many Christians became martyrs. 

13. The December snows hide the fallen leaves. 

14. The bitter blasts chill the delicate flowers. 

15. A noble purpose keeps us happy. 

16. They made the battlefield gory. 

17. Seeing is believing. 

18. To see is to believe. 

19. Man is human. . 

20. To forgive is divine. 

Note.— In the third sentence, " will" is a tense auxiliary. It is used to 
assist in expressing the idea of the time, with reference to the present, of 
the development of the idea expressed by the subject noun into the idea 
expressed by the nominative attribute. 



LESSON XX. 
SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS. 

THE ADJECTIVE WORD-ELEMENT. 

The Adjective Word-Element has already received some 
attention. The nature of the relation of the idea it expresses 
to the noun with which it is used is so close that no inter- 
vening word is necessary to express it. 



52 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

We will now notice the structure of these word-elements, 
and the nature of the ideas expressed by them. 

Subordinate elements in sentences express ideas or judg- 
ments that modify by qualifying*, limiting', or intensifying 
the ideas expressed by other elements. 

When the idea expressed by a noun is qualified, limited, 
or intensified by the idea expressed by a single adjective, we 
call that adjective, in structure, a " Simple Adjective Word- 
Element," because it is the expression of a simple, or single 
qualifying, limiting, or intensifying idea ; as, "sweet apples," 
" other men," " heavy thunder," etc. 

When the qualifying, limiting, or intensifying idea 
expressed by an adjective is itself limited or intensified by 
some other idea, we call the expression of this complex idea 
a "Complex Adjective Word-Element." The basic idea is 
modified by another idea, or other ideas, subordinate to the 
basic idea ; as expressed by " very cold weather," " a purely 
American production," etc. 

When two or more ideas are used correlatively and 
co-joined to qualify or limit or intensify the idea expressed 
by a noun, the words used to express such co-joined ideas 
form a " Compound Adjective Word-Element," because they 
are the expression of a compound qualifying, limiting, or 
intensifying idea; as in the expression, " a sad and lonely 
hour," "a drunken and savage crew," etc. 



Exercise I. — Illustrate the Complex Adjective Word- 
Element by five original sentences. 



SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS 53 

Exercise II. — Illustrate the Compound Adjective Word- 
Element by five original sentences. 

Exercise III. — Diagram and analyze the following 
sentences : — 



storm 



visited 



destructive recently city 

A fearfully our 

1. A fearfully destructive storm recently visited our city. 

2. His masterly effort was very highly praised. 

3. The dismasted and storm-tossed bark drifted slowly 
shoreward. 

4. That young man is a very industrious student. 

5. Very highly enjoyable entertainment was provided. 

6. He was a thoroly frightened young man. 

7. Hypatia, the Alexandrian philosopher, was a highly 
gifted young woman. 

8. Poor, sinful Pelagia was a sorely misguided girl. 

9. Kingsley's " Hypatia " is an intensely interesting and 
instructive book. 

10. That June 4, 1901, was an extremely warm day. 



LESSON XXI. 
SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS— Continued. 

THE ADVERBIAL WORD-ELEMENT. 

As in the case of the adjective, the Adverbial Word-Ele- 
ment is " simple M when it is the expression of a simple, or 



54 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

single qualifying, limiting, or intensifying idea ; as in the 
expression " singing sweetly." 

The Adverbial Word-Element is "complex" when it is 
the expression of an idea that is modified by an idea or ideas 
subordinate to it, as expressed by another word or words ; as 
in the expression, " singing very sweetly." 

The Adverbial Word-Element is "compound " when it is 
the expression of two or more correlative and co-joined ideas ; 
as in the expression, " singing softly and sweetly." 

In the first case, the element is a "simple Adverbial 
Word-Element" ; in the second case, it is a "Complex Adver- 
bial Word-Element" ; in the third, a "Compound Adverbial 
Word-Element." 

Exercise I. — Illustrate the Complex Adverbial Word- 
Element by five original sentences. 

Exercise II. — Illustrate the Compound Adverbial Word- 
Element by five original sentences. 

Exercise III. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences : — . 



they 



laid 



down him 
slowly 
and 
sadly 

1. Slowly and sadly they laid him down. 

2. A very beautiful day followed the defeat. 

3. Mary sings very sweetly. 



SUBOKDINATE ELEMENTS 55 

4. The brakeman was very severely hurt. 

5. His pulse was beating rather feebly. 

6. You eat entirely too rapidly. 

7. You are entirely too careless. 

8. Others are found quite equally fickle. 

9. Peaches so large and luscious are quite rare. 
10. The winter was extremely cold. 



LESSON XXII. 
SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS— Continued. 

THE OBJECTIVE WORD-ELEMENT. 

We may discuss the Objective Word-Element, with refer- 
ence to its structure, just as we have the Adjective and the 
Adverbial Word-Elements, respectively. Objective Word- 
Elements are : — 

1. Simple Objective Word-Elements, when they express 
a single objective idea; as in the expression, " cutting 
sticks." 

2. Complex Objective Word-Elements, when the basic 
objective idea is qualified, limited, or intensified by another 
idea, or by ideas, subordinated to the basic idea; as in the 
expression, "preparing his frugal meal." 

3. Compound Objective Word-Elements, when they are 
the expression of two or more basic objective ideas, any or all 



56 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

of which may be simple or complex ; as in the expression, 
"earning food and clothes.' 

Exercise I. Illustrate the Simple Objective Word-Ele- 
ment (Direct Object) by five original sentences. 

Exercise II. — Illustrate the Complex Objective Word- 
Element by five original sentences. 

Exercise III. — Illustrate the Compound Objective Word- 
Element by five original sentences. 

Exercise IV. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences : — 



Children 



love 

fruits 



1. Children love fruits. 

2. Christ blessed the little children. 

3. The sluggard despises toil. 

4. The hunters slew an exceedingly fierce lion. 

5. We love the old-time ways. 

6. The good boy loves his father and his mother. 

7. Christ gave the world truth, justice, love, and 
mercy. 

8. The American fleet poured forth a murderous fire. 

9. Our soldiers showed China the American heart and 
strength. 

10. He heard the night winds howling. 

11. He heard the night wind's howling. 



SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS 57 

LESSON XXIII. 
SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS— Continued, 

THE APPOSITIVE WORD-ELEMENT. 

As to structure, we may classify the Appositive Word-Ele- 
ment precisely as we have all the other modifying word- 
elements. The Appositive Word-Element is : — 

1. A Simple Appositive Word-Element when it is without 
modifiers; as, "The name, Washington." 

2. A Complex Appositive Word-Element when the basic 
element is modified ; as, " Ridpath, the lecturer." 

3. A Compound Appositive Word-Element, when the basic 
part of the appositive is compound, as, "Shakespeare, the 
poet and dramatist." 

In the case of the Appositive Word-Element, either or 
both of the basic parts of the element may be either simple 
or complex. 

Thus it may be seen that, on the whole, any element is : — 

1. Simple, when standing alone; or, 

2. Complex, when the basic idea expressed is qualified, 
limited, or intensified by any kind of element subordinate to 
itself ; or, 

3. Compound, when consisting of two or more basic ele- 
ments used co-ordinately. 



Exercise I. — Write five sentences containing simple 
Appositive Word-Elements. 



58 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Exercise II. — Write five sentences containing complex 
Appositive Word-Elements. 

Exercise III. — Write five sentences containing com- 
pound Appositive Word-Elements. 

Exercise IV. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences : — 



Americans 



revere 

name 



the (Washington) 

1. Americans revere the name Washington. 

2. Peter the hermit preached a crusade. 

3. Peter the fisherman became Peter the apostle. 

4. Nero, Rome's most unbearable tyrant, persecuted the 
Christians sorely. 

5. Cyril, the Alexandrian Patriarch, was an ambitious 
politician. 

6. John, the beloved disciple, wrote the book Revela- 
tion. 

7. Garfield, our lamented president, suffered the assas- 
sin's stroke. 

8. The American war-cry, "Remember the Maine," 
stirred every patriot's heart. 

9. That peculiar delusion, the Salem Witchcraft, mars 
New England's early history. 

10. Washington Irving, the eminent American author, 
visited the Spanish Court. 



SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS 59 

LESSON XXIV. 
SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS— Continued, 

THE PHRASE-ELEMENT ITS NATURE. 

In the study of the English language it is customary to 
call the " preposition and its object " (why its object we can- 
not tell) a Phrase-Element. In this discussion, we shall 
notice the nature and the structure of the phrase-element. 

In the expression "the verdure of spring," the idea ex- 
pressed by " spring n limits the idea expressed by " verdure," 
by denoting the season. " Spring verdure " shows the lim- 
itation better. " Spring" is the expression of the limiting 
idea, in the first expression, and "of" is, supposedly, the 
expression of the relation of the idea expressed by " spring M 
to the idea expressed by "verdure." This relation is 
somewhat like the relation of possession — a genitive rela- 
tion. 

In the expression, "The clock on the shelf," a relation 
exists between the idea expressed by " shelf " and that ex- 
pressed by " clock." " On " is the expression of that relation 
— a relation of place. 

The Prepositions ^Latin prae, before, and ponere, to 
place) on, in, into, by, up, upon, from, under, etc. , are used 
to express the idea of the relation of place, etc., existing 
between the ideas of actions and of things. 

In Adjective Phrase-Elements, the preposition "of" is 
generally used to express the idea of the relation existing 
between the limiting idea and the idea limited. "Of" is 



60 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

usually the expression of a genitive relation, tho this rela- 
tion is sometimes difficult to perceive. 

In the Adverbial Phrase-Element, the prepositions given 
above, along with others, are used to express the relation 
between the limiting idea and the idea so limited. The 
expression of this limiting* idea, together with the ex- 
pression of the relation of this limiting 1 idea to the idea so 
limited, constitutes a "phrase-element," either adjective or 
adverbial. 

Definition. — A Phrase is the expression of a related idea 
together with the expression of the relation of this idea to 
some other idea. 

The related idea expressed in a phrase may be simple, 
complex, or compound. The nature of such ideas has been 
sufficiently explained already. 

Sometimes the preposition is omitted, the relation 
being only intimated. In such cases, the expression of the 
related idea is sometimes called a word-element. However, 
when a relation is obvious, such as can be expressed by a prep- 
osition, it is better to classify the element as a phrase-element. 

In the expression, " Standing by the river," "by the 
river " is a simple adverbial phrase-element. " The river" 
is the expression of the complex related idea, and "by" is 
the expression of the relation of this idea to the idea of 
action expressed by " standing " — a relation of place. 



Exercise I. — Write ten sentences, using all the prep- 
ositions given above, and others, and study the exact rela- 
tions so expressed. 



SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS 61 

Exercise II. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences, disposing of the phrase-elements as suggested above : — 

fields lie 

nobler of triumph before us 

Far 

1. Far nobler fields of triumph lie before us. 

2. David, the sweet singer of Israel, was mighty in battle. 

3. " The Angel of Death spread his wings to the blast." 

4. Virginia the martyr was the daughter of Virginius the 
soldier. 

5. The invading army rushed into the town at daybreak. 

6. Many bloody battles were fought in 1863. 

7. My friend attended school at Harvard during the last 
year. 

8. I walked with my friend along the shore. 

9. King Canute sat by the seaside. 

10. The temple of the Jews at Jerusalem was first built 
by King Solomon. 

LESSON XXV. 
SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS— Continued. 

THE PHRASE-ELEMENT ITS STRUCTURE. 

We have seen that, in structure, word-elements may be 
simple, complex, or compound. In structure, phrase- 
elements are likewise : — 

1. Simple Phrase-Elements when the basic idea expressed 
in the phrase is not limited or qualified by an idea expressed 



62 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

in the form of another phrase, or by a subordinate related 
judgment expressed by a clause-element. 

2. Complex Phrase-Elements when the basic idea ex- 
pressed in the phrase is limited or qualified by an idea ex- 
pressed in the form of another phrase, or by a subordinate 
related judgment expressed by a clause-element. 

3. Compound Phrase-Elements when the same element of 
the judgment is limited or qualified by two or more co-ordinate 
and co-joined related ideas expressed in the form of phrases. 

When the two members of the compound related idea 
bear the same relation to the idea to which they are related, 
the relation is expressed by a single preposition, and thus the 
phrase is partially compound. When the two co-ordinately 
used ideas bear unlike relations to the idea to which they are 
related, the relations are expressed by different prepositions, 
and thus the phrase-element is wholly compound. 



Exercise I. — Write five original sentences to illustrate 
the Simple Phrase-Element. 

Exercise II. — Write five original sentences to illustrate 
the Complex Phrase-Element. 

Exercise III. — Write five original sentences to illustrate 
the Compound Phrase-Element. 

Exercise IV. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences : — 



they 



climb 



Slowly mountains 
and distant 

sadly the 



INFINITIVES 63 

1. " Slowly and sadly they climb the distant mountains. " 

2. They read their doom in the setting sun. 

3. We came at last to the bank of a beautiful stream. 

4. " The toad,, ugly and venomous, 
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head." 

5. Childhood lives in the days of sunshine and of song. 

6. Evening, a dusky damsel, walked the paths of the forest. 

7. The roses diffuse their fragrance through the hall. 

8. From the icebergs of the North came a wintry blast. 

9. The enemy of our souls throws many barriers into our 
way. 

10. Every little incident of that joyous day was treasured 
in the memory of that poor child. 



LESSON XXVI. 
INFINITIVES. 



An Infinitive (Latin in, not, and flnitivus, limited), is a 
word that is used to express an idea of action, being, or 
state. In its nature, it has not the power to make an asser- 
tion. The infinitive expresses an idea of action, etc., without 
the limitation of the person and number of its subject. 

According to their uses, infinitives are classified as 
follows : — 

1. Participial Infinitives when used to express ideas of 
action or state that qualify some other idea expressed in the 
sentence; as in the expressions, "the howling* wind," "a 
scorched desert," etc. 



64 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

2. Substantive Infinitives when used to name the idea of 
action, being, or state in an abstract sense, or to express 
ideas of action, being, or state as thing's ; as in the sentence, 
" To steal is wrong," " Swimming* is a good exercise," etc. 

3. Attributive Infinitives when used to express predicate 
attributes of their subjects, whether those subjects be nomina- 
tive or objective. This use of the Infinitive occurs in the 
Nominative Attribute and in the Objective Attribute ; as in 
the sentences, — "Lying is stealing," "We saw him fall," 
" We heard her singing," etc. 

According to their forms, Infinitives are classified as 
follows : — 

1. Progressive Infinitives — the " ing-forms" to express 
ideas of continuance of action, being, or state ; as expressed 
by running, singing, thinking, etc. 

2. Present Infinitives — "the root-forms" to express 
mere ideas of action, being, or state by the present indicative 
form of the verb, which has at the same time no power to 
make an assertion; as expressed by "to hear," "to see," 
"to read," etc. 

3. Perfect Infinitives — the " ed-forms" and "the irreg- 
ular forms" from irregular verbs, to express ideas of 
completed action, being, or state; as expressed by buried, 
enslaved, sung, hanged, etc. 

There are certain other infinitive forms, such as " having 
taught," "having been taught," etc. — compounds with 
auxiliary particles, that may be noted as we pass. These 
"compound " forms have for their essential elements one or 
the other of the simple forms above accompanied by one or 



IN FINITIVES— PARTICIPIAL 65 

more auxiliary particles used to express ideas of the tense 
or voice of the infinitive used. In such cases, the voice or 
tense as shown by the accompanying particle or particles 
should be noted. 

The above disposition of the infinitive necessitates a 
change in the naming of the ' 'principal parts " of the verb 
in conjugation. The old way is incorrect, to say the least, 
if classifications are made on the basis of likeness of mean- 
ings rather than of form. Every word in the English lan- 
guage which expresses an idea of action, being, or state, 
without the limitation of the person or number of its sub- 
ject, is an infinitive. 

There is not necessarily any such thing as a ''perfect 
participle" as one of the "principal parts" of the verb. 
Such words as are usually so-called, are made participles 
only by their use as adjective or adverbial modifiers. 

The "principal parts" of verbs, in English, are the 
Present Indicative, the Past (or Imperfect) Indicative, and 
the Perfect Infinitive. 

When, and only when, any one of the above forms is used 
as an adjective or an adverb, it is then a participle — made 
such by its use. 



LESSON XXVII. 

INFINITIVES— PARTICIPIAL. 

A Participle, or Participial Infinitive (Latin, pars, part, 
and capere, to take) is the expression of the idea of the attrib- 



66 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

utive nature of the verb, which idea is used to qualify 
some other idea expressed. 

Illustrations : — 

In the sentence, "Standing water becomes stagnant," 
" standing " is the expression of the attributive nature of 
the verb "stand." Here the idea of action expressed by 
"standing" qualifies the idea expressed by " water. " In 
this sentence, "standing" is a participial infinitive used 
as a pure qualifying adjective having a weak participial 
construction. 

2. In the sentence, " The water standing in the pond is 
stagnant," " standing " is still a pure qualifying adjective in 
function. In this sentence, "standing" has what we may 
call a strong participial construction, to the extent that the 
idea of action it expresses is limited as it might be in the 
attributive verb. 

In both of the sentences above, we have considered the 
nature and use of the "ing-form," as a participial infinitive. 
We have also to study the "root-form" in its nature and 
use as a participial infinitive. This latter form is usually 
called an "infinitive," whatever may be its use. 

3. In the sentence, "The way to learn is to study," " to 
learn ' ' is the expression of an idea of action that qualifies 
the idea expressed by "way." This idea of action is 
expressed by the root-form of the verb "learn." In this 
sentence, " to learn" is a pure qualifying adjective in use, 
having a weak participial construction while, in nature, it is 
a root participle. 



INFINITIVES— PARTICIPIAL 



67 



4. In the expression, "the way to learn rapidly," "to 
learn" is the expression of an idea of action that qualifies 
the idea expressed by "way." In this expression, "to 
learn" partakes so strongly of the verbal nature as to be 
modified as a verb. It is in this case a pure qualifying 
adjective having a strong participial construction. 

As to structure, participial elements are : — 

1. Simple Participial Elements, when the basic element 
is unmodified ; as in the expression, " running* water. " 

2. Complex Participial Elements, when the basic ele- 
ment is modified; as in the expression, "the current ris- 
ing* swiftly." 

3. Compound Participial Elements, when the basic 
element is compound; as in the expression, "the fallen 
and decaying* branches of the forest trees," etc. 

In analysis, participial elements are disposed of precisely 
as are adjective or adverbial elements. When, on account of 
their stronger verbal nature, they are modified as verbs, their 
modifiers are to be studied precisely as modifiers of verbs 
are studied. 



Exercise I. — Write ten sentences illustrating the use of 
the ing*-infinitives and the root-infinitives as pure qualifying 
adjectives, having a weak participial construction. 

Exercise II. — Write ten sentences illustrating the use of 
the ingoing nitive and the root-infinitive as pure qualifying 
adjectives having a strong* participial construction. 



68 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

LESSON XXVIII. 

INFINITIVES— PARTICIPIAL— Continued. 

Exercise I. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences according to former models and the foregoing sugges- 
tions, noting carefully the infinitive expressions : — 

balloon I was (lost 

swaying ascending in clouds 

great higher the 

The and - 

higher 

1. The great swaying balloon, ascending higher and 
higher, was lost in the clouds. 

2. The nightingale, singing sweetly, entertained the 
benighted travelers. 

3. Hearing an approaching foot-fall, I turned. 

4. Quickly ascending to the top of the hill, we beheld 
the rising moon. 

5.. Resolutely facing the angry crowd, he quelled the rising 
tumult. 

6. Some ragged children diligently gathering the cigar- 
stumps from the streets attracted our attention. 

7. They w^ere hungering waifs earning a bit of 
bread. 

8. Singing merrily, the milk-maid tripped lightly across 
the greening meadow. 

9. A million diamonds, sparkling and glittering in the 



INFINITIVES— SUBSTANTIVE 69 

dazzling sunlight, bedecked the treetops on that winter 
morning. 

10. The sun, rising quickly over the eastern ridge, chased 
the darkness before it pell-mell. 



LESSON XXIX. 

INFINITIVES— SUBSTANTIVE. 

The Substantive Infinitive is used to express an idea of 
action, etc., by merely naming it, so far as the other parts of 
the sentence are concerned. This infinitive may, in the 
English language, take the office of a pure noun in almost all 
of the various constructions of the noun. 

With reference to the relation of the Substantive Infinitive 
to the other elements, it is a pure noun, having the construc- 
tion of a pure noun. 

With reference to the relation of elements subordinate to 
itself, the Substantive Infinitive has a strong substantive 
construction and may be modified as a noun, or it may be 
strong in its verbal nature, and so be modified as a verb ; or 
it may be modified both as a verb and as a noun. 

The Infinitive is not a verb, as it has not the power to 
assert. It may, in a broad sense, be called a "verbal." It 
is the expression of the attributive nature, not the assertive 
power, of the verb. 

Forms of the Substantive Infinitive. — Substantive 
Infinitives, like Participial Infinitives, are of three forms, 



70 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

namely: 1. The ing-forms. 2. The root-forms. 3. The ed- 
and the irregular- forms. 

The uses of the ed-forms and the irregular-forms are 
very rare. They are never used except when they are 
made to stand for the noun with which they are used, and 
they then denote a class of persons or things ; as in the 
expression, the forsaken, the wretched, etc. 

Uses of the Substantive Infinitive : — Substantive 
Infinitives are used in almost all the constructions in which 
pure nouns are used. 

Illustrations : — 

a. As Subject of a Sentence : — 

1. Erring is human. 

2. To forgive is divine. 

b. As Nominative Attribute : — 

1. Seeing is believing. 

2. To see is to believe. 

c. As Direct Object : — 

1. I desire to learn. 

2. Boys enjoy cycling. 

d. As expression of related idea in a Phrase-Ele- 

ment : — 

1. What went ye out (for) to see? 

2. He strives for learning. 

e. As an Appositive Element : — 

1. It is easy to master the lesson. 

2. It is wise to study diligently. 



IXFIX1TIVES— ATTRIBUTIVE 71 

Exercise I. — Write two original sentences containing the 
Substantive Infinitive in each of the above-named construc- 
tions. 

Exercise II. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences : — 

To deceive to be shamed 

in means in end 



the 



is ( the 



1. To deceive in the means is to be shamed in the end. 

2. To love nobly is to live purely. 

3. Rowing is excellent physical exercise. 

4. To serve humanity well is his highest ambition. 

5. He desires to rest and to regain his strength. 

6. We heard the silvery rippling of the water flowing 
over the pebbles. 

7. We learn to do by doing. 

8. Down came the blessed rain, drenching the thirsty earth. 

9. Donning his great fur coat, he plunged boldly into the 
storm. 

10. The coloring leaves suggest the approaching autumn. 



LESSON XXX. 



INFINITIVES— ATTRIBUTIVE. 



The Attributive Infinitive is an infinitive used to express 
the idea of some attribute of action, being, or state of its 
subject. 



72 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

There are two uses of the Attributive Infinitive, namely : — 

1. To express the simple attributive element of a judg- 
ment, with its subject nominative ; as, 

a. Mary is reciting*. 

b. To hesitate sometimes is to fail. 

c. Learning is growing* intellectually. 

2. To express the simple attributive element of the 
abridged objective judgment, as seen in the case of the 
"Infinitive Attribute" of the Double Object already studied; 
as, 

a. We heard the prisoner singing*. 

b. The teacher compelled him to study. 

c. The hungry fox thought the lion sleeping*. 

In the first list above, the attributive infinitives are nom- 
inative attributes because their subjects are nominative. In 
the second list, the attributive infinitives are objective attri- 
butes because their subjects are objective. 



Exercise I. — Write ten sentences to illustrate the use of 
the attributive infinitive as nominative attribute. 

Exercise II. — Write ten sentences to illustrate the use of 
the attributive infinitive as objective attribute. 

Exercise III. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences: — 



wind 



was (roaring 



winter dismally 

The 

1. The winter wind was roaring dismally. 

2. We heard the great owl hooting in the darkness. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 73 

3. The children saw a great drift-log roll over the dam in 
the river. 

4. The enraged bees were buzzing about angrily. 

5. The sturdy young farmer was driving his team to the 
field. 

6. The feeding birds are chirping merrily. 

7. Flowers are blooming. 

8. We heard the bells ring cheerily. 

9. The laborers saw the man fall from the bridge into the 
rushing stream. 

10. Away went the boat floating down the current. 



LESSON XXXI. 

EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

Exercise. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences, giving special attention to the Infinitives, noting 
whether they are Participial, Substantive, or Attributive : — 

1. The falling rain was drenching the belated travelers. 

2. To deceive in the means is to be ashamed in the end. 

3. They drank their flagons of home-brewed ale. 

4. We saw the drunken wretch reeling into the gutter. 

5. The way to meet the demands of the age, is to educate 
the hands, the head, and the heart of the masses. 

6. Trained nurses tenderly attended the wounded and 
dying soldiers. 



74 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

7. Is this Christian civilization destined to die at the hand 
of criminal sloth? 

8. They sank before the murderous foe, fighting to the 
last. 

9. Singing is a very pleasing and refining exercise. 

10. The sceptered and mitered Pope wielded almost uni- 
versal sway. 



LESSON XXXII. 

INFINITIVES— ANALYSIS. . 

Exercise. — Diagram and analyze the following sentences, 
making a careful study of the peculiar infinitive expressions 
used : — 

1. Standing on the bridge, we saw the trembling shadows 
in the water below us. 

2. For me to decide the question is impossible. 

3. It is impossible for me to decide the question. 

4. The children longed for father to come home. 

Suggestion. — "Longed for" means "earnestly desired," a transitive 
verb. 

5. Streaks of livid flame seemed to shoot across the sky. 

6. The soldiers saw the ship's guns battering and crum- 
bling the forts guarding the harbor. 

7. A glancing shell struck the mutilated ship. 

8. They thought to retreat to be to surrender. 

9. The soldiers thought retreating disgraceful. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 75 

10. For me willingly to do what you ask is in every way 

impossible. 

Note. — The teacher will use his judgment now as to whether the exer- 
cise of diagramming shall be continued. If neatness and exactness are con- 
stantly practiced, such work is in no wise a loss of time. Even in the 
analysis of long and complicated sentences, the diagram may be very help- 
ful. Moreover, pupils delight to use their hands in whatever task. We 
believe that, for various reasons, the exercise of diagramming may be very 
profitably continued. 



LESSON 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

1. She promised to sing in our coming concert. 

2. Many students attending the seminary were ordained 
to preach the gospel. 

3. Doing a great work often demands a great sacrifice. 

4. We have the following plan to offer. 

5. Busily engaged in pluming its feathers, the bird did 
not see the approaching serpent. 

6. The horse is eager to start. 

7. The traveler threw himself upon the ground to rest. 

8. To act is to live. 

9. To cease to act is to die. 

10. Hope is a cable anchoring us to heaven. 

11. " Hope deferred maketh the heart sick." 

12. April, a weeping maiden, came drenching the earth 
with her tears. 

13. The falling tears of weeping April awoke the sleeping 
flowers. 



76 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

14. By diving many fathoms deep, they recovered the 
sunken treasure. 

15. Having crossed the Rubicon, Caesar hastened to reach 
Rome. 

16. " He came walking and leaping and praising God." 

17. To give just credit always, is to exercise just judgment. 

18. Loving God is obeying His whole will. 

19. We prove our love by obeying His commandments. 

20. The sounding of the trumpet was the signal for attack- 
ing the enemy. 

LESSON XXXIV. 

THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE SENTENCE. 

According to their structure, sentences are classified as 
follows : — 

1. Simple Sentences, when they are the expression of 
single judgments no element of which is modified by a sub- 
ordinate judgment; as, " The performance was pleasing." 

2. Complex Sentences, when they are the expression of 
judgments some element of which is modified by a subordi- 
nate judgment ; as, " He desires that you visit him." 

3. Compound Sentences, when they are the expression of 
two or more associated judgments used correlatively and co- 
joined ; as, "The rains descended and the floods came." 

There is some difference of opinion as to the proper dis- 
position of a sentence, in this classification, which contains 
the noun clause as subject or as nominative attribute ; that 
is, as the expression of the fundamental or of the attributive 



THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE SENTENCE 77 

element of the judgment. On this point it maybe said: 
The Noun Clause used as subject or as Nominative 
Attribute, expresses as a unit the fundamental or the attribu- 
tive element of the judgment. ,It requires the whole clause 
to constitute this unit of the element. This unit is not a 
modifying element. The Noun Clause used as Subject or as 
Nominative Attribute is, with reference to the other basic 
element, a mere noun, and does not justify us in calling the 
sentence containing it a "Complex Sentence." 

The " Direct Object" is a limiting element. Hence, 
when the noun clause is used as a Direct Object, the sentence 
is complex ; as, "He said that he would return." 

The Appositive is a limiting element. Hence, when the 
noun clause is used as an Appositive, the sentence is com- 
plex ; as, "It is probable that he will return." 

Adjectives and Adverbs are qualifying or limiting ele- 
ments. Hence, when a clause is used as an adjective or as 
an adverb, the sentence is complex ; as, "The thing that I 
love is denied me." "He returned when I had gone." 

In this lesson we will consider the Noun Clause in the 
simple sentence. (What two positions may the Noun Clause 
occupy in the simple sentence ?) 



Exercise I. — Write five simple sentences containing the 
Noun Clause used as the subject. 

Exercise II. — Write five simple sentences containing the 
Noun Clause used as Nominative Attribute. 

Exercise III. — Diagram and analyze the following 
sentences : — 



78 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

That 



he 



is (innocent 

is (unquestioned 



1. That he is innocent is unquestioned. 

2. The prevailing belief is, that he is innocent. 

3. " Here is the culprit," was the cry. 
4.. " Is this right? " was the inquiry. 

5. That he was stolen away by night was the belief of his 
enemies. 

6. The important question is, " Does the purpose justify 
the means?" 

7. "How beautiful is this view!" is the customary 
exclamation. 

8. " Is he improving?" was the anxious inquiry. 

9. "Can any good thing come from our efforts?" was 
the doubting response. 

10. The unexpected reply was, " Have I a right to do this?" 



LESSON XXXV. 
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 

THE NOUN CLAUSE. 

Exercise I. — Write five sentences containing the Noun 
Clause used as Direct Object. 

Exercise II. — Write five sentences containing the Noun 
Clause used as an Appositive Element. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 79 

Exercise III. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences : — 



It 



that 



is (strange 



he 



forgot 



obligation 
his 

1. It is strange that he forgot his obligation. 

2. " 'Charge for the guns,' he said." 

3. We intend that he shall be our chief. 

4. It is believed that the earth is round. 

5. The general commanded that the soldiers return to camp. 

6. I charge you that you heed the message. 

7. The reddening evening proclaims that to-morrow will 
be a fair day. 

8. The wounded man asked, " How long have I to live?" 

9. How know I that thou art sincere? 

10. It is agreed that his behavior is improved. 



LESSON XXXVI. 
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE— Continued. 

THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE-ELEMENT. 

The Adjective Clause-Element is the expression of a sub- 
ordinate judgment related to some idea expressed by a sub- 
stantive. The relation of this judgment to the idea limited 
by it is expressed by Relative Pronouns or by Relative Ad- 



80 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

verbs. Both classes of connectives express a relation of 
limitation. 

The Relative Pronouns are "who," "which," "what," 
and "that," and a few others. They perform a distinct 
office in the Adjective Clause, and also express the relation of 
the judgment expressed by the clause to their antecedent. 

Illustrations : — 

1. In the sentence, "The book-writer that forgets his 
responsibility is unworthy," "that" expresses the idea of the 
relation between the judgment expressed by the Adjective 
Clause, "that forgets his responsibility," and the idea 
expressed by "book- writer," the antecedent of "that" — a 
relation of limitation. 

2. In the sentence, "This is the spot where the hero 
fell, "where" is a relative adverb, which expresses the idea 
of the relation existing between the subordinate judgment 
expressed by "where the hero fell" and the idea expressed 
by " spot" — a relation of limitation. 

The Relative Adverbs are "when," "where," "whereby," 
"why," etc. They signify " in which," "within which," 
"on which," etc. In the subordinate clause they are 
adverbial in use. They express a relation of time, place, 
etc. But as the " which "-sense expressed by these words 
refers to an antecedent noun, this double, pronominal- 
adverbial use justifies the name " Relative Adverb." 



Exercise I. — Write five Complex Sentences using "who," 
"which," "what," "that," and "as," to express the rela- 
tion of the subordinate judgment to the idea limited by it. 



THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 81 

Exercise II. — Write five Complex Sentences using 
"when," "where," "whereby," and "why" to express the 
relation of the subordinate judgment to the idea limited. 

Exercise III. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences : — 



He 



receives 



usually much 



who 



merits 

much 



1. He who merits much usually receives much. 

2. That was a time that tried men's souls. 

3. That was a lesson which I failed to learn. 

4. How may I know the place where he may be found? 

5. A great leader arose at a time when the nation sorely 
needed him. 

6. He is obeyed who first learns to obey. 

7. That was the poor child to whom he gave bread. 

8. "Who do men say that I, the- Son of Man, am?" 

9. There came a time when all things were brought to 
their remembrance. 

10. Who is he to whom you presented the letter? 



LESSON XXXVII. 
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE— Continued. 

THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE-ELEMENT. 

The Adverbial Clause-Element is the expression of a sub- 
ordinate judgment related to the idea of some action, being, 



82 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

or state, expressed in the sentence. This relation is expressed 
by that class of connectives called " Conjunctive Adverbs," 
because they in a sense join the sentences, and at the same 
time perform the office of adverbs. 

Chief, perhaps, among the Conjunctive Adverbs are 
"when," "where," "as," "before," "since," "because," 
etc. The relation so expressed is usually a relation of time, 
place, manner, cause, etc. ; and upon the basis of the rela- 
tion so expressed, the clause-element is classified, as to its 
meaning, as an "adverb of time," of "place," etc. 

Direction. —Commit the following list of Subordinate 
Connectives : — after, altho, as, because, before, ere, for, if, 
since, so, than, that, unless, whereas. 



Exercise I. — Write ten sentences containing the Adver- 
bial Clause-Element. 

Exercise II. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences, classifying the Adverbial Clauses from the meaning 
expressed by the connective : — 

started 



promptly 

/order | reached 

commander's I when 



the 



me 



1. I started promptly when the commander's order 
leached me. 



THE PAETIALLY-COMPOUND SENTENCE 83 

2. They encountered the enemy as its troops emerged 
from the forest. 

3. Many years have passed since the awful struggle 
closed. 

4. A multitude of brave boys lay where they fell. 

5. I will obey when you command. 

6. The stranger of whom you speak met me as I was 
returning from school. 

7. We sojourned in the country while the heated season 
was passing. 

8. The students labored diligently while their opportunity 
lasted. 

9. The fort on the hill was bombarded till it surrendered. 
10. As long as there is life there is hope. 

Note. — "As long as" signifies "while." 



LESSON XXXVIII. 



THE PARTIALLY-COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

Sometimes agreement is asserted between one attribute 
and two or more subjects. Sometimes agreement is asserted 
between two or more attributes and one subject. The sen- 
tence expressing either of the above conditions is ' ' partially- 
compound." 

Illustrations : — 

1. In the sentence, — " Light and heat and moisture are 



84 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

necessary to plant life," the attribute expressed by "neces- 
sary" is asserted of three subjects : thus, because one of the 
essential elements — the subject — is compound, the sentence 
is "partially-compound." 

2. In the sentence, — "The sun lights and warms the 
earth," the two attributes of action separately expressed by 
"lighting" (in "lights") and by " warming" (in "warms") 
are asserted of one subject, expressed by "sun." Thus, 
because one of the essential elements — the predicate — is com- 
pound, the sentence is partially-compound. 

Such sentences as the above are rightly called " Partially- 
Compound Sentences." They result from the synoptic and 
contracting, or grouping, tendencies of the mind. A number 
of objects come before the mind. A common attribute is per- 
ceived in each. A judgment is formed, which we desire to 
express. (Possibly as many judgments are formed as there 
are separate objects before us in which we perceive the com- 
mon attribute.) Instead of the tedium of a separate ex- 
pression for each judgment, the separate fundamental ideas 
are expressed, and one assertion of agreement is made 
between the several fundamental ideas and the one attrib- 
utive idea. 

When there is but one fundamental idea, and more than 
one attributive idea, in the judgment, instead of the tedium 
of a separate assertion of agreement between this one funda- 
mental idea and the several attributive ideas, in the ex- 
pression of several separate judgments, one assertion of 
agreement between the single fundamental, and the several 
attributive ideas, is made. 



THE PAETIALLY-COMPOUND SENTENCE 85 

Illustrations: — 

1. Instead of saying — " Light is necessary to plant life 
and heat is necessary to plant life and moisture is necessary 
to plant life," this repetition of parts is condensed into the 
equivalent and economic form — " Light, heat, and moisture 
are necessary to plant life." 

2. Instead of saying — " The sun lights the earth and the 
sun heats the earth," the expression is condensed into the 
equivalent and economic form — ' ' The sun lights and heats 
the earth." 

A sentence is partially-compound only when it contains 
the expression of a compound fundamental, or a compound 
attributive, element of the judgment. That is, a sentence is 
partially-compound only when it has a compound subject 
formed of two or more simple subjects used correlatively ; or 
when it has a compound predicate formed of two or more 
simple predicates used correlatively. That is, a sentence is 
partially-compound when one of its essential, or principal, 
elements is compound. 

Sometimes the partially-compound sentence may have 
both a compound subject and a compound predicate ; as, 
"John and James work on the farm in summer and attend 
school in winter." 

The Objective Element is a subordinate element. There- 
fore a compound " Direct Object" does not make the sen- 
tence partially compound. 

Adjective, appositive, and adverbial elements are subordi- 
nate elements. Therefore compound adjective, appositive or 



80 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

adverbial elements do not make the sentence partially-com- 
pound. 

Exercise I. — Compose five partially-compound sentences 
having compound subjects. 

Exercise II. — Compose five partially-compound sentences 
having compound predicates. 

Exercise III. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences : — 

Bees 

are (insects 



(and) 

ants 



little 
busy 
very 

1. Bees and ants are very busy little insects. 

2. The roses and the violets of their youth had faded. 

3. The blackbird is caroling and warbling on the sway- 
ing branch of the old appletree. 

4. The wintry winds and snows are resuming their 
wonted sway. 

5. The busy wheels of the great flour mill are humming 
and singing as they toil. 

6. Men, women, and children were shouting, and crying 
" Hosanna ! to the son of David." 

7. " Drink deep or taste not the Pierian Spring." — Pope. 

8. " Time and tide wait on no man." 

9. Studying the Bible and living its precepts give us a 
spiritual development that makes us fit to live with men here 
and with angels hereafter. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 87 

10. The fortune-seekers were sturdily delving into the 
earth, industriously washing the soil, and greedily collecting 
the grains of precious metal. 



LESSON XXXIX. 

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

A Compound Sentence is the expression of two or more 
co-related judgments. In order that the sentence be in 
reality compound, there must be a relation in thought 
between the two or more judgments expressed. 

The nature of the relation existing between the judgments 
expressed in a compound sentence is shown by the connective 
used. 

"And" is the typical connective. It really expresses 
no more than the relation of aggregation; as, "The rain 
descended and the floods came and the winds blew and beat 
upon that house and it fell not." 

The Connective is : — 

1. Copulative, when it expresses simple aggregation. 
Examples: "and," "also," etc. 

2. Adversative, when expressing a relation of contrary 
conditions in the members joined. Examples: "but," 
"tho," "yet," "while," "and yet," etc. 

3. Alternative, when expressing a relation of alternation, 
sometimes involving a choice or preference between the 
judgments expressed disjunctively. Examples: "or," 
" nor," " either . . . or," " neither . . . nor," " then," etc. 



88 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

A close study of the relation expressed by the connective 
is vital to the exact understanding of the meaning expressed 
by a compound sentence. 

Commit to memory the following list of coordinate con- 
nectives : " and," " also," " but," " else," " further," 
' ' however, ' ' ' ' moreover, ' ' i ' notwithstanding, " ' ' or , " 
" nor," "still," "yet." 



Exercise I. — Compose compound sentences using each 
of the above coordinate connectives. 

Exercise II. — Diagram and analyze the following sen- 
tences, especially noting the relation of the judgments ex- 
pressed, as told by the connective : — 

Dawn | lifted 

The ; curtain 

(a f d) sable of night 
\ the the 

sun 



the 



revealed 

scene 



beauteous 
the 



1. The dawn lifted the sable curtain of the night and the 
sun revealed the beauteous scene. 

2. At last the heavy gloom of the fog arose, but the ship 
had disappeared from view. 

3. You must yield ; otherwise I shall slay you. 

4. The command rang out sharply on the morning air, 
and the troops issued forth with measured tread. 



THE COMPOUND SENTENCE S'J 

5. The catastrophe befell him notwithstanding ne made a 
brave effort to prevent it. 

6. At the door he hung the bird-cage, 
And they entered in and gladly 
Listened to Osseo's father, 

Ruler of the Star of Evening. 



Thus the wedding banquet ended, 
And the wedding guests departed, 
Leaving Hiawatha happy 
With the night and Minnehaha. 



-Longfellow. 



-Longfellow. 



8. Buried were all warlike weapons, 
And the war-cry was forgotten. 

— Longfelloiv. 

9. Thou hast already failed me thrice, and I doubt thy 
courage and discretion, 

10. I much dislike his looks and manner ; yet his courage 
and skill are unquestioned. 

11. In the village worked the women, 
Pounded maize, or dressed the deer-skin ; 
And the young men played together 

On the ice the noisy ball-play, 

On the plain the dance of snow-shoes. 

— Longfellow. 

12. Homeward now came Hiawatha 
From his hunting in the forest, 
With the snow upon his tresses, 
And the red-deer on his shoulders. 



90 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

At the feet of Laughing- Water 
Down he threw his lifeless burden, 
Nobler, handsomer she thought him 
Than when first he came to woo her. 

— Longfellow. 



LESSON XL. 

THE SENTENCE-CLASSIFICATION. 

According to their nature, sentences are classified as 
follows : — 

1. Declarative, when they contain the assertion of a posi- 
tive agreement or disagreement between the fundamental 
and the attributive elements of the judgment; as, "The 
years are passing. ' ' 

2. Interrogative, when they are the expression of an 
inquiry concerning the agreement or the disagreement exist- 
ing between the fundamental and the attributive elements of 
the judgment; as, "Are you injured?" 

3. Imperative, when they are the expression of a desire 
or determination of the speaker to secure the performance of 
an act ; as, " Come to the festal board to-night. " 

4. Exclamative, when they are the expression of entnusi- 
astic appreciation of the agreement existing between the 
fundamental and the attributive elements of the judgment ; 
as, " How beautiful is the day ! " 

It is difficult indeed to discover a parallel between the 



THE SENTENCE-CLASSIFICATION 91 

nature of the Imperative sentence and that of the Declarative 
sentence. Hidden away among the relics of the ages past, 
no doubt, lies the parallel, or, what is more likely, the 
identity. But at this day, the Imperative sentence stands 
alone, a distinct monument of what ages of the growth and 
change of language have produced. 

Our discussions of the nature, of thought and expression 
shrink before this monument, and we approach it now only 
in conjecture. May it not be that the peculiar form and 
nature of the Imperative sentence had its origin somewhat as 
follows : — 

In the sentence, "You sing sweetly to me," we under- 
stand that the words were mildly uttered, a mere statement 
of a fact — the sentence Declarative. Now emphasize the 
subject "you" slightly. Note that the desire that "you 
sing" is now becoming manifest. Now omit the tender 
word "sweetly," and at the same time retain the former 
emphasis on the subject "you." Note now the manifest 
growth of the desire. Now, growing more vehement in the 
wish, drop the courteous "you" and the tender word 
"sweetly," and note the effect — the expression is now 
robbed of the tenderness and the courtesy, and has resolved 
itself into an imperious request. Now drop "to me," the 
softening fall in the original expression. Note now that the 
former courteous and tender expression of a mere wish has 
been transformed by the gradually increasing degree of 
urgency into an unqualified command, and that, instead of 
the former Declarative sentence, " You sing sweetly to me," 
there now stands only the naked verb, " Sing." 



92 . ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Such is the nature of the Imperative sentence, and such is 
the probable process thru which it has passed since the 
beginning of language. And such is the nature of the verb 
in the Imperative mode. 

Thus may we not conclude that the origin of the various 
kinds of sentences classified as to their nature was in all 
probability identical? The Imperative mode of the verb, 
and the Imperative sentence are probably growths that are 
the outcome of the multitudinous necessities that have con- 
fronted man in all the various stages of his intellectual and 
linguistic development. 

In the English language, the Imperative verb is used in 
only one "Person" — the "second person." It is easy and 
correct, then, to assume that the subject is always the 
personal pronoun — singular or plural — "ye," or "you," or 
"thou," or possibly, sometimes, the antecedent of "thou" 
or " you." 

In the analysis of the Exclamative sentence, it will be 
noticed that by the placing of the parts into their natural 
order, the sentence becomes practically identical in form with 
the form of the Declarative sentence. The sentence, " How 
bitterly he regrets the deed," becomes " He regrets the deed 
how bitterly," when read in the order for analysis. 

The Exclamative particles " oh , " " ah , " " hurrah , ' ' 
"pooh," etc., have no grammatical connection with the 
sentence which follows. However, they are full of signifi- 
cance, in that they portray something of the manner in which 
the speaker regards the matter under consideration, and so 
deserve attention. 



CONNECTIVES 93 

Exercise I. — Compose five Declarative sentences. 
Exercise II. — Compose five Interrogative sentences. 
Exercise III. — Compose five Imperative sentences. 
Exercise IV. — Compose five Exclamative sentences. 



LESSON XLI. 
CONNECTIVES. 



In the study of Compound and Complex sentences, the 
" Connective " is a very significant element. " Connectives " 
are those words which are used to express the relations 
existing between different ideas, between ideas and related 
judgments, and between related judgments. 

Connectives are classified as follows : — 

1. Co-ordinate Connectives, when they are such as are 
used to express relations between elements of equal rank in 
sentence structure. Examples: — "and," "or," "nor," etc. 

Co-ordinate Connectives are classified as follows : — 

a. Copulative, when used to express the idea of the 
aggregation of ideas or judgments of equal rank in structure, 
and co-ordinately used. Examples : — " and," " also," etc. 

b. Adversative, when used to express the idea of contrary 
conditions existing between the co-ordinately used ideas or 
judgments. Examples: — "but," "except," etc. 

c. Alternative, when used to express the idea of a choice 
or alternative between the co-ordinately used ideas or judg- 
ments used disjunctively. Examples: — "or," "nor," etc. 



[>4 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Alternative Connectives are classified as follows : — 

(a) As to Form — 

1. Simple, as "or," "nor." 

2. Compound, as "either ... or," "neither . . . 

nor." 

(b) As to Nature — 

1. Positive, as "or," "either . . . or." 

2. Negative, as "nor," "neither . . . nor." 

2. Subordinate Connectives, when they are used to 
express relations between elements of unequal rank in 
structure. 

Subordinate Connectives are classified as follows : — 

a. Correlative, such as are used in pairs, one answering 
or referring to the other. Some members of this class are 
likewise used as co-ordinate connectives. From their use it 
may usually be quite easily determined whether they are 
co-ordinate or subordinate connectives. 

Commit the following list of correlatives in pairs, and 
write sentences using each pair :— "both . . . and," " as . . . 
as," "if. . . then," "so . . . as," "notwithstanding . . . 
yet," " tho . . . yet," "either ... or," "neither . . . 
nor." 

b. Conditional, such as are used to express the relation 
of a subordinate judgment to the idea that the judgment 
limits, when this related judgment is made the condition 
upon which the principal judgment becomes a fixed fact. 
Examples:— "if," "tho," "unless," "except." 

c. Relative Pronouns, which are used to express the rela- 
tion of the subordinate judgment expressed by the adjective 



CONNECTIVES 95 

clause to the idea limited or qualified by this related judg- 
ment. 

Examples : — (a) Simple Relative Pronouns — ' ' who, ' T 
"which," "what," "that," "as," "but." (b) Compound 
Relative Pronouns : — " whoever," " whoso," " whosoever," 
1 ' whichever, " " whichsoever, " " whatever ' ' and ' ; what- 
soever. ' ' 

d. Relative Adverbs, which are adverbs used to express 
the relation existing between a subordinate related judg- 
ment and the idea expressed by a noun, or substantive, 
which idea the subordinate judgment limits. Examples : — 
"when," "where," "why," etc. 

e. Conjunctive Adverbs, which are used to express the 
relation existing between a subordinate related judgment and 
some idea of action, being, or state, which the subordinate 
judgment limits by denoting the time, place, etc., of the 
action, being, or state. Examples: — "then," "when," 
"where," "while," " as," " after," "before," "how," 
"since," "therefore," "till," "until," "wherefore," 
" why." 

f. Prepositions, which are used to express the relation 
existing between a subordinate related idea and the idea 
which this subordinate idea limits. Examples: — "by," 
"from," "upon," "in," "into," "within," etc. (See 
list of prepositions in Supplement.) 



Exercise I. — Write three compound sentences using Co- 
ordinate Connectives. Study the relation expressed by the 
connective. 



96 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Exercise II. — Write three complex sentences using Con- 
ditional Connectives. 

Exercise III. — Write three complex sentences using 
Relative Pronouns as connectives. 

Exercise IV. — Write three complex sentences using 
Relative Adverbs as connectives. 

Exercise V.— Write three sentences using Prepositions. 



LESSON XLIL 

DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS. 

In the preceding lessons the simple sentence has been 
analyzed, essentially, in all its various forms. 

1. The sentence must first be read, and then classified, 
first as to structure, and second, as to nature, thus: — "The 
young man who wills to mount the heights will always find 
a way." This is a complex declarative sentence. 

2. Next, read the subject part, and then the predicate 
part of the sentence ; thus : — "The young man who wills to 
mount the heights" is the complex subject. It is the expres- 
sion of the complex fundamental element of the judgment. 

3. Next, read the simple subject, then dispose of its 
"modifiers." 

4. Next, read the complex predicate and tell why it is 
such ; then the simple predicate ; then dispose of its modifiers. 

5. Modifiers of a noun, or any substantive, are always 
simple, complex, or compound, in structure ; and they are 
always adjective or appositive in nature ; and they are always 



SOME FRAGMENTS 97 

word, phrase, or clause, in form. So, as elements, they may 
be spoken of as simple, complex, or compound, adjective, or 
appositive, word, phrase, or clause elements. The ideas 
they express modify by qualifying or limiting, and possibly, 
sometimes, by intensifying. 

6. Modifiers of verbs or infinitives are simple, complex, 
or compound, adverbial or objective, word, phrase, or clause 
elements. 

a. Objective elements limit by denoting the direct or the 
indirect recipient of the action, or by denoting ' 'duration of 
time or extent of space." 

b. Adverbial elements qualify the action by denoting the 
manner, or the kind, of the action, or they limit the action, 
being, or state by denoting the time, place, cause, etc., or 
they intensify by denoting a greater or a lesser degree of the 
quality of a substance or an action. 

7. In the analysis of a compound sentence, let the sen- 
tence be read and classified. Then let the co-ordinate mem- 
bers of the compound sentence be analyzed separately. 

8. Study the exact relations expressed by all connectives. 

Before beginning the general exercises in analysis to fol- 
low, let the foregoing directions be clearly understood and 
carefully committed. 

LESSON XLHL 

SOME FRAGMENTS. 

The student may encounter some difficulty in disposing of 
certain elements not yet more than merely touched upon in 



98 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

our course in analysis. We deem it well to call attention to 
a few of these elements. 

1. Tense Auxiliaries. 

In the sentence, "Charles had recited," "had" is an 
auxiliary word introduced as a means of assisting in the 
fixing of the time of the action with reference to the present 
time ; "had" is, therefore, a tense auxiliary. 

In the sentence, "I shall discharge my duty," "shall" is 
an auxiliary word introduced as a means of assisting in 
fixing the time of the action with reference to the present 
time ; "shall" is, therefore, a tense auxiliary. 

And so "shall" and "will," with "have" and the 
perfect infinitive, are used to denote the future perfect 
tense; "have," "has," or "hast," with the perfect infin- 
itive, to denote the present perfect tense; and "had" or 
"hadst" with the perfect infinitive, to denote the past perfect 
tense. 

The above tense auxiliaries are generally considered as a 
part of the verb ; but they are separate from the word used 
to express the idea of action. They have a separate signifi- 
cance that should be studied and known. 

It is true that such words serve obscurely to express the 
mind-decision of agreement between the essential elements of 
the judgment, and so possess the assertive power of the pure 
copulative verb. The "tense" significance is what we wish 
especially to call attention to here. While they assert in this 
hidden way the agreement, they have a value in fixing the 
tense of the assertion. Hence we may call them "tense 
auxiliaries." 



SOME FEAGMEXTS 99 

2. Mode Auxiliaries. 

In the sentence, "You may return," "may" is used to 
indicate permission granted by the speaker to the person 
addressed. (Or it may indicate future possibility.) Such a 
word introduced into the sentence modifies the usual mode 
of assertion, and hence it may be called a "mode auxil- 
iary." 

Such words as can, could, may, might, ought, would, and 
should, used to express ideas of power, possibility, will, 
permission, probability, or obligation to perform certain 
actions, are properly called "mode auxiliaries." 

Such words, as do the "tense auxiliaries," in a hidden 
way, assert the agreement between the essential elements of 
the judgment expressed by the sentence in which they are 
used. They are thus verbs, but they have a separate value 
— that of modifying the assertion — that deserves special 
notice. This separate significance should be definitely under- 
stood. 

3. Introductory words. 

The sentence, "There are no idlers here," might be 
" Here are no idlers," or "No idlers are here." But usage, 
reflective or accidental, has come to prefer the former expres- 
sion; and so we have a peculiar use of the word "there." 
This use was doubtless, at one time, purely adverbial. Now 
it has become weakened into an introductory expression, 
enabling us to put the subject after the verb, and such is its 
synthetic connection with the sentence. 

In the sentence, " That he is right, is plainly evident," 
"that," naturally endowed with a strong demonstrative sig- 

LofC. 



100 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

nificance, has faded into a weak introductory word. "He is 
right, is plainly evident," is the expression of the same judg- 
ment, stript of the introductory formality. But Usage, 
sovereign of his time, prefers the former expression. 

Possibly "That is plainly evident," was the sentence from 
which the above sentence arose. Afterward the expression, 
"he is right," was thrown in as explanatory of "that" — 
appositive in its relation to "that." But the force of "that" 
has dwindled to its present significance — that of a weak intro- 
ductory expression. 

4. Exclamatives. 

In the sentence, "Hurrah! we have won!", "hurrah" 
signifies an explosion of enthusiasm on the part of the 
speaker. Such expressions are properly called "Exclama- 
tives." 

Such words as hurrah, pooh, alas, avaunt, etc., are full 
of significance, and deserve a close study. They have no 
synthetic connection with the rest of the sentence with which 
they occur, tho they accompany it with much meaning. In 
analysis, they are properly called "Exclamatives." 

5. Contractions. 

In the sentence, "John is taller than James," "than 
James" constitutes the subject of the second member of a 
compound sentence expressing a comparison. It may 
be of assistance at first, to complete the second member, 
thus — "than James is tall," as the real standard of the 
comparison lies in the second member. However, let this 
be done only that the standard and the comparison may be 
discerned. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 101 

LESSON XLIV. 
EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

1. "Big words do not smite like war-clubs." 

2. "Boastful breath is not a bow-string." 

3. "Taunts are not so sharp as arrows." 

4. "Deeds are better things than words are." 

5. "In the land of the Dakotahs 

Lives the arrow-maker's daughter." 

6. "At the feet of Laughing Water 

Hiawatha laid his burden." 

7. "Through their thoughts they heard a footstep, 

Heard a rustling in the branches, 
And with glowing cheeks and forehead, 
With the red deer on his shoulders, 
Suddenly from out the woodland 
Hiawatha stood before them." 

8. "All around the happy village 

Stood the maize fields, green and shining, 
Waved the green plumes of Mondamin, 
Waved his soft and sunny tresses, 
Filling all the land with plenty." 



102 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

LESSON XLV. 

EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS, 

1. "In the old colony days, in Plymouth, the land of the 

Pilgrims, 
To and fro in a room of his simple and primitive 

dwelling, 
Clad in doublet and hose, and boots of Cordovan 

leather, 
Strode with a martial air, Miles Standish, the Puritan 

Captain." 

2. "Long at the window he stood, and wistfully looked at 

the landscape." 

3. "Let not him that putteth his hand to the plow look 

backwards, 
Though the ploughshare cut through the flowers of life, 
to the fountains." 

4. "If the great Captain of Plymouth is so very eager to 

wed me, 
Why does he not come himself, and take the trouble 
to woo me?" 

5. "Forth from the curtain of clouds, from the tent of 

purple and scarlet, 
Issued the sun, the great High-Priest, in garments 
resplendent." 

6. "Over his clouded eyes there had passed at times an 

expression 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 103 

Softening the gloom and revealing the warm heart 
hidden beneath them, 

As when across the sky the driving rack of the rain- 
cloud 

Grows for a moment thin, and reveals the sun by its 
brightness." 

7. "Then he said with a smile, 'I should have remem- 
bered the adage — 
If you would be well served, you must serve your- 
self.'" ' 



LESSON XLVI. 

EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

1. "All his thoughts were congealed into lines on his 

face, as the vapors 
Freeze in fantastic shapes on the window-panes in 
winter." 

2. "Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of 

heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the 
angels." 

3. "Life -had long been astir in the village, and clamor- 

ous labor 
Knocked with its hundred hands at the golden gate 
of the morning." 



104 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

4. "Plaintive at first were the tones, and sad, then soar- 

ing to madness, 
Seemed they to follow or guide the revels of frenzied 
Bacchantes." 

5. " Single notes were then heard, in sorrowful, low 

lamentation ; 
Till, having gathered them all, he flung them abroad 

in derision, 
As, when after a storm, a gust of wind through the 

tree-tops, 
Shakes down the rattling rain in a crystal shower on 

the branches." 

6. "But on Evangeline's heart fell his words as in winter 

the snowflakes 
Fall into some lone nest from which the birds have 
departed." 

7. "Gleams of celestial light encircle her forehead with 

splendor, 

Such as the artists paint o'er the brows of saints and 
apostles, 

Or such as hang by night o'er a city seen at a dis- 
tance." 

LESSON XLVII. 

EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

1. " England yielded to the Danes and Northmen in the 
tenth and eleventh centuries, and was the receptacle into 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 105 

which all the mettle of that strenuous population was 
poured." 

2. " There shall come a time, in later ages, when Ocean 
shall relax his claims, and a vast continent appear, and a 
pilot shall find new worlds, and Thule shall be no more 
earth's bounds." 

3. " The discovery of America by Christopher Columbus 
is the greatest event in secular history." 

4. " The splendid empire of Charles V. was erected upon 
the grave of liberty. The ancient stream of national freedom 
and human progress, through many of the fairest regions of 
the world, w r ere emptied and lost in that enormous gulf." 

5. "The Spaniards of the sixteenth century were indis- 
putably the noblest nation of Europe ; yet they had the 
Inquisition and Philip II." 

6. " All the sober men that I was acquainted with, who 
were against the Parliament, used to say, ' The king had the 
better cause, but Parliament had the better men.' " 



LESSON XL VIII. 
EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

The Crusades of the Christian nations, intended to dis- 
lodge the "Infidel" out of Jerusalem, though they failed in 
that object, had awakened Europe to new life. East and 



L06 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

West were brought nearer together* Knights and soldiers 
and pilgrims brought iiome from new lands new thoughts 
and wider notions. Commerce with the East was extended. 
Maritime enterprise was stimulated. There was improve- 
ment in ships. The mariner's compass was discovered, and 
under its guidance longer voyages could safely bo made. The 
invention of gunpowder had changed the character of war, 

and enlarged the scale on which it was waged. The recent 

conquests of the Turks «were indirectly the cause of new Life 

to Christendom. The fall of Constantinople resulted in a 

great revival of learning in Europe. Driven from the East, 
learned Greeks and Jews came to settle in Italy. Greek and 
Hebrew wciv again studied in Europe. The literature, the 
history, the poetry, the philosophy and arts, of old Greece 
and Borne were revived. And the result was, that a succes- 
sion of poets, painters, sculptors, and historians sprang up in 
Christendom such as had not been known for centuries. 
Above all, the invention of printing had come just in time to 
spread whatever new ideas were afloat, with a, rapidity never 
known before. — Seebohm. 



GENERAL EXERCISES IN ANALYSTS. 

A Suggestion. — By the various exercises in analysis already passed 
over, the student is probably prepared to proceed with the following without 
discussing all the minute details of the analysis of each selection. The 
reading of the separate clauses and a caref ul study of the relations of the 

judgments expressed by the clauses, and o(' the parts with which the student 
is less familiar, will save much time, and yet in no wise diminish the value 
of the exercise. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 107 

1. " We sped the time with stories old, 

Wrought puzzles out, or riddles told." 

2. " Who has not learned in hours of faith 

The truth to flesh and sense unknown, 
That Life is ever lord of Death, 

And Love can never lose its own? " 

3. " We turn to pages that they read, 

Their written words we linger o'er, 
But in the sun they cast no shade, 
No voice is heard, no sign is made ; 

No step is on the conscious floor!" 

4. " Yet Love will dream and Faith will trust, 

Since He who knows our needs is just, 
That somehow, somewhere, meet we must." 

5. cc The cat's dark silhouette on the wall 

A couchant tiger's seemed to fall." 

6. " What matter how the night behaved? 

What matter how the north-wind raved? 
Blow high, blow low, not all its snow 
Could quench our hearth-fire's ruddy glow." 

7. " Build thee more stately mansions, my soul, 

As the swift seasons roll! 

Leave thy low-vaulted past ! 
Let each new temple, nobler than the last, 
Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast, 

Till thou at last art free — 
Leaving thy out-grown shell by life's unresting sea." 



108 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

8. " Whither, mid falling dew, 

While glow the heavens with the last steps of day 
Far in the rosy depths dost thou pursue 
Thy solitary way? " 

9. " Musing beneath this legendary tree 

The years between furl off." 

10. " 'There he stood,' softly we repeat, 

And lo! the statue shrined and still 
In that gray minsterfront we call the Past, 
Feels in its frozen veins the pulses thrill." 

11. "Then it came to pass that a pestilence fell on the 

city, 
Presaged by wondrous signs, and mostly by flocks of 

wild pigeons, 
Dark'ning the sun in their flight, with naught in 

their craws but an acorn ; 
And, as the tides of the sea arise in the month of 

September, 
Flooding some silvery stream, till it spreads to a lake 

in the meadow, 
So death flooded life, and, o'erflowing its natural 

margin, 
Spread to a brackish lake, the silver stream of 

existence." 

12. " Her lively looks a sprightly mind disclose, 

Quick as her eyes, and as unfixed as those ; 
Favors to none, to all she smiles extends 
Oft she regrets, but never once offends." 




EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 109 

13. " Yet graceful ease, and sweetness void of pride, 

Might hide her faults, if belles had faults to hide ; 

If to her share some female errors fall, 

Look on her face, and you'll forget them all." 

14. " This world was once a fluid haze of light, 

Till toward the centre set the starry tides, 

And eddied into suns, that wheeling, cast the planets." 

15. " Knowledge is now no more a fountain sealed ! 

Drink deep until the habits of a slave, 
The sins of emptiness, gossip, and spite and slander 
die." 

16. " Better not to be at all 
Than not to be noble." 

17. " This is the very painting of your fear ; 

This is the air-drawn dagger which, you said, 
Led yau to Duncan. 0, these flaws and starts, 
Imposters to true fear, would well become 
A woman's story at a Winter's fire, 
Authorized by her grandam." 

18. " I have lived long enough ; my way of life 

Is fallen into the sere, the yellow leaf ; 
And that which should accompany old age, 
As honor, love, obedience, troops of friends 
I must not look to have." 

19. " Canst thou not minister to a mind diseased ; 

Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow ; 
Raze out the written troubles of the brain ; 



110 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

And with some sweet, oblivious antidote, 
Cleanse the stuffed bosom of that perilous stuff 
Which weighs upon the heart?" 

'20. " Frailty, thy name is woman." 

21, tL The friends thou hast, and their adoption tried, 

Qrapple them bo thy soul with hoops of steel." 

22. "What a piece of workmanship is man! how noble 
in reason I how infinite in faculties! in form and moving 
how express and admirable I in action, how like an angel I 
in apprehension, how like a Godl n 

2'A. " (Jive me that man 

That is not passion's slave, and T will wear him 
In my heart's core, ay, in my heart of hearts, 
As I do thee." 

24. "Must I relinquish it all!" he cried with a wild 

Lamentation, 
" Must I relinquish it all, the joy, the hope, the 

illusion? 
Was it for this I have loved, and waited, and 

worshipped in silence? 
Was it for this I have followed the flying feet and 

(he shadow 
Over the wintry sea, to the desolate shores of New 

England?" — Longfellow. 

25, Hut as lie warmed and flowed, in his simple and 

eloquent language, 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 111 

Quite forgetful of self, and full of the praise of his 
rival, 

Archly the maiden smiled, and, with eyes over- 
running with laughter, 

Said in a tremulous voice, "Why don't you speak 
for yourself, John? • ' 

— Longfellow. 

26. Then the master, 

With a gesture of command, 

Waved his hand ; 

And at the word, 

Loud and sudden there was heard, 

All around them and below, 

The sound of hammers, blow on blow, 

Knocking away the shores and spurs — 

And see! she stirs ! 

She starts — she moves — she seems to feel 

The thrill of life along her keel, 

And, spurning with her foot the ground, 

With one exulting joyous bound, 

She leaps into the ocean's arms. 

— Longfellow. 

27. Thou, too, sail on, Ship of State! 
Sail on, Union, strong and great! 
Humanity with all its fears, 

With all the hopes of future years, 
Is hanging breathless on thy fate ! 
We know what Master laid thy keel, 
What Workman wrought thy ribs of steel, 



112 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Who made each mast and sail and rope ; 
What anvils rang, what hammers beat, 
In what a forge and what a heat 
Were shaped the anchors of thy hope! 

— Longfellow. 

28. I dare your pity or your scorn, 

With pride your own exceeding ; 
I fling my heart into your lap 
Without one word of pleading. 



— Whittier. 



29. She looked up in his face of pain 
So archly yet so tender : 
" And if I lend you mine," she said, 
" Will you forgive the lender?" 



— Whittier. 



30. A strange delight, 
Blent with a thrill of fear, o'er-mastered me, 
And, ere I knew, my flashing steps were set 
Within the rivulet's pebbly bed, and I 
Was rushing down the current. By my side 
Tripped one as beautiful as ever looked 
From white clouds in a dream, and, as I ran, 
She talked with musical voice and sweetly laughed. 

—Bryant. 

31. Eva looked, 
And lo ! a glorious hall, from whose high vault, 
Stripes of soft light, ruddy, and delicate green, 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 113 

And tender blue, flowed downward to the floor 
And far around, as if the aerial hosts 
That march on high by night, with beamy spears, 
And streaming banners, to that place had brought 
Their radiant flags to grace a festival. 

— Bryant. 

32. So Eva slept, 
But slept in death ; for when the power of frost 
Locks up the motions of the living form, 

The victim passes to the realm of Death 
Through the dim porch of sleep. 

— Bryant. 

33. The stag at eve had drunk his fill, 
Where danced the moon on Monan's rill, 
And deep his midnight lair had made, 
In lone Glenartney's hazel shade ; 

But when the sun, his beacon red 

Had kindled on Benvoirlick's head, 

The deep-mouthed blood-hound's heavy bay 

Resounded up the rocky way, 

And faint, from farther distance borne, 

We heard the clanging hoof and horn. 

—Scott. 

34.. As chief, who hears his warders call, 
11 To arms ! the foemen storm the wall !" 
The antlered monarch of the waste 
Sprang from his heathery couch in haste ; 
But, ere his fleet career he took, 



114 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

The dewdrops from his flanks he shook ; 
Like crested leader proud and high, 
Tossed his beamed frontlet to the sky, 
A moment gazed adown the dale, 
A moment snuffed the tainted gale, 
A moment listened to the cry, 
That thickened as the chase drew nigh ; 
Then, as the headmost foes appeared, 
With one brave bound the copse he cleared, 
And, stretching forward full and far, 
Sought the wild heaths of Uam-Vai\ 

—Scott. 

35. Soldier, rest! thy warfare o'er, 

Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking : 
Dream of battled fields no more, 
Days of danger, nights of waking. 
In our isle's enchanted hall, 
Hands unseen thy couch are strewing, 
Fairy strains of music fall, 
Every sense in slumber dewing. 
Soldier, rest! thy warfare o'er, 
Dream of fighting fields no more ; 
Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking, 
Morn of toil, nor night of waking. 



-Scott. 



36. At length, with Ellen, in a grove 

He seemed to walk and speak of love ; 
She listened with a blush and sigh, 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 115 

His suit was warm, his hopes were high. 

He sought her yielded hand to clasp — 

And a cold gauntlet met his grasp : 

The phantom's sex was changed and gone, 

Upon its head a helmet shone ; 

Slowly enlarged to giant size, 

With darkening cheek and threatening eyes, 

The grisly visage, stern and hoar, 

To Ellen still a likeness bore — 

He woke, and panting with affright, 

Recalled the vision of the night. 

— Scott. 

37. The bride kissed the goblet ; the knight took it up, 
He quaffed off the wine, and he threw down the cup, 
She looked down to blush, and she looked up to sigh, 
With a smile on her lips and a tear in her eye. 

He took her soft hand, ere her mother could bar — 
" Now tread we a measure," said young Lochinvar. 

— Scott. 

38. One touch to her hand, and one word in her ear, 

As they reached the hall door, and the charger stood 

near ; 
So light to the croup the fair lady he swung, 
So light to the saddle before her he sprung. 
" She is won! We are gone, over bank, bush and 

scaur ; 

They'll have fleet steeds that follow," quoth young 

Lochinvar. ~ _, 

— Scott 



116 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

39. The train from out the castle drew, 
But Marmion stopped to bid adieu : — 

" Though something I might 'plain," he said, 
"Of cold respect to stranger guest, 
Sent hither by your king's behest, 
While in Tantallon's towers I stayed; 
Part we in friendship from your land, 
And, noble earl, receive my hand." 

40. But Douglas round him drew his cloak, 
Folded his arms, and thus he spoke : — 

" My manors, halls, and bowers shall still 
Be open at my sovereign's will, 
To each one whom he lists, howe'er 
Unmeet to be the owner's peer. 
My castles are my king's alone, 
From turret to foundation-stone — 
The hand of Douglas is his own ; 
And never shall in friendly grasp 
The hand of such as Marmion clasp. " 

41. Burned Marmion 's swarthy cheek like fire, 
And shook his very frame for ire, 
And—" This to me?" he said— 

" An 'twere not for thy hoary head, 
Such hand as Marmion's had not spared 
To cleave the Douglas' head." 

42. " And first I tell thee, haughty peer, 

He who does England's message here, 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 117 

Although the meanest in her state, 
May well, proud Angus, be thy mate ; 
And Douglas, more I tell thee here, 
Even in thy pitch of pride, 
Here in thy hold, thy vassals near, 
(Nay, never look upon your lord, 
And lay your hands upon your sword), 
I tell thee, thou 'rt defied !" 

43. " And if thou saidst I am not peer 
To any lord in Scotland here, 
Lowland or Highland, far or near, 
Lord Angus, thou hast lied." 

— Scott. 

A4. From the neighboring school 
Come the boys, 

With more than their wonted noise 
And commotion ; 
And down the wet streets 
Sail their mimic fleets, 
Till the treacherous pool 
Ingulfs them in its whirling 
And turbulent ocean. 

— Longfellow. 

45. They climb up into my turret, 

O'er the arms and back of my chair, 
If I try to escape, they surround me ; 
They seem to be everywhere. 

— Longfelloiv . 



118 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

46. They almost devour me with kisses, 

Their arms about me entwine, 
Till I think of the Bishop of Bingen, 
In his Mouse-tower on the Rhine. 

— Longfellow. 

47. Do you think, blue-eyed banditti, 

Because you have scaled my wall, 
Such an old mustache as I am 
Is not a match for you all? 

— Longfellow. 

48. I have you fast in my fortress 

And will not let you depart, 
But put you into the dungeon 

In the round-tower of my heart. 

— Longfellow. 

49. The world was all before them where to choose 
Their place of rest, and Providence their guide. 
They, hand in hand, with wandering steps and slow, 
Through Eden took their solitary way. 

— Milton. 

50. Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour. 
England hath need of thee. She is a fen 
Of stagnant waters ; altar, sword, and pen, 
Fireside, the heroic wealth .of hall and bower, 
Have forfeited their ancient English dower 
Of inward happiness. We are selfish men ; 
Oh! raise us up, return to us again ; 

And give us manners, virtue, freedom, power. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 119 

Thy soul was like a star, and dwelt apart ; 

Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea — 

Pure as the naked heavens — majestic, free ; 

So didst thou travel on life's common way 

In cheerful godliness ; and yet thy heart 

The lowliest duties on herself didst lay. 

— Wordsworth. 

51. Ae fond kiss and then we sever ; 
Ae farewell, alas, forever. 

Had we never loved sac kindly, 
Had we never loved sae blindly, 
Never met, or never parted, 
We had ne'er been broken-hearted. 

— Burns. 

52. We look before and after, 

And pine for what is not ; 
Our sincerest laughter 

With some pain is fraught ; 
Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest 
thought. — Shelley. 

53. One day, nigh weary of the irksome way, 

From her unhastie beast she did alight, 
And on the grass her dainty limbs did lay 

In secret shadow, far from all men's sight ; 

From her fayre head her fillet she undight, 
And laid her stole aside. Her angel's face, 

As the great eye of heaven, shyned bright, 



120 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

And made a sunshine in the shady place ; 
Did ever mortal eye behold such heavenly grace? 

— Spenser. 

54. Last noon beheld them full of lusty life ; 

Last eve, in beauty's circle proudly gay ; 
The midnight brought the signal sound of strife ; 

The morn, the marshalling in arms ; the day — 

Battle's magnificently stern array! 
The thunder clouds close o'er it, which, when rent, 

The earth is covered thick with other clay, 
Which her own clay shall cover, heapt and pent, 
Rider and horse, friend, foe, in one red burial blent. 

— Byron. 

55. To him who, in the love of nature, holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language. For his gayer hours 
She has a voice of gladness and a smile 

And eloquence of beauty ; and she glides 
Into his darker musings with a mild 
And healing sympathy that steals away 
Their sharpness ere he is aware. 

— Bryant. 

56. Fitted for every use, like a great majestical river, 
Blending thy various streams, stately thou flowest 

along, 
Bearing the white-winged ship of poesy over thy 

bosom, 
Laden with spices that come out of the tropical isles, 



; 



EXEECISES IN ANALYSIS 121 

Fancy's pleasuring yacht, with its bright and flutter- 
ing pennons, 

Logic's frigates of war, and the toil-worn barges of 
trade. 

— Story. 

57. Thou hast the sharp, clean edge, and the downright 

blow of the Saxon ; 
Thine the majestical march and the stately pomp of 

the Latin ; 
Thine the euphonious swell, the rhythmical roll of 

the Greek ; 
Thine is the elegant suavity caught from sonorous 

Italian ; 
Thine the chivalric obeisance, the courteous grace of 

the Norman ; 
Thine the Teutonic German's inborn guttural 

strength. —Story. 

58. Therefore it is that I praise thee and never cease 

from rejoicing, 

Thinking that good stout English is mine and my 
ancestors' tongue ; 

Give me its varying music, the flow of its free mod- 
ulation ; 

I will not covet the full roll of the glorious Greek, 

Luscious and feeble Italian, Latin so formal and 
stately, 

French with its nasal lisp, nor German, inverted 
and harsh, — 



122 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Not while our organ can speak with its many and 

wonderful voices, 
Play on the soft lute of love, blow the loud trumpet 

of war, 
Sing with the high sesquialto, or, drawing its full 

diapason, 

Shake all the air with the grand storm of its pedals 

and stops. 

— Story . 



PART TWO 



OUTLINE STUDIES OF THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 

LESSON I. 

L— THE NOUN, 

I. Definition. — A Noun (Latin, nomen) is a name. 
II. According to their uses, nouns are classified as (1) 
Proper, (2) Common. 

1. A Proper Noun is a particular name of the person, place, 
or thing ; as, John, London, Mars, The Maine, John Smith, etc. 

Rule. — Proper Nouns and words derived from them begin 
with a capital letter. 

2. A Common Noun is a general or class name of persons, 
places, or things ; as, boy, city, sun, etc. 

Common Nouns are sub-classed as follows : — 

(a) Class Nouns, names that may be applied to any one 
of a class ; as, boy, man, horse, etc. 

(b) Abstract Nouns, names of qualities, actions, and all 
purely mental attributes ; as, sweetness, joy, learning 1 , etc. 

(c) Collective Nouns, names that in the singular form 
denote aggregation or collection ; as, jury, army, school, etc. 



Exercise I. — Write a list of twenty common nouns not 
in the following selection. 

125 



126 ENGLISH SENTENCE . 

Exercise II. — Classify all the nouns in the following 
selection : — 

From the wigwam he departed, 
Leading with him Laughing Water ; 
Hand in hand they went together, 
Through the woodland and the meadow, 
Left the old man standing lonely 
At the doorway of his wigwam, 
Heard the falls of Minnehaha 
Calling to them from the distance, 
Crying to them from afar off, 
Fare thee well, Minnehaha. 

— Longfellow. 



LESSON II. 
THE NOUN— PROPERTIES. 

III. Properties. — The properties of words are the various 
significations that they are made to express. Sometimes 
these properties are denoted by changes in the form of the 
word. Sometimes they are not so denoted. In the English 
language these inflections, or changes in the forms of words, 
are not nearly so extensive as in most other languages, 
especially those that are called the " dead languages." 

The properties of nouns are gender, person, number, and 
case. 

1. Gender, in English grammar, is that property of nouns 
by which the sex of a person or thing is denoted. 



THE NOUN PROPERTIES 127 

There are in reality only two genders, but it is customary 
to distinguish both the fact of sex and the lack of sex by 
a gender. Hence, English grammarians recognize four 
genders, as follows : — 

(a) Masculine Gender, which denotes that the person or 
thing named is of the male sex ; as, boy, man, lion. 

(b) Feminine Gender, which denotes that the person or 
thing named is of the female sex; as, girl, woman, lioness. 

(c) Common Gender, which denotes that sex is possessed 
by the person or thing named, but that the sex is not dis- 
tinguished ; as, baby, children, calf, pupil. 

(d) Neuter Gender, which denotes lack of sex, as in case 
of names of inanimate things and of abstract nouns ; as, iron, 
wood, star, education. 

By personification, a 4C figure of speech," gender is some- 
times attributed to the planets, the elements, etc. Sometimes 
such gender is masculine, sometimes feminine ; as in the 
sentences, " The moon herself is lost in heaven" ; " The sun 
in all his glory," etc. 

There are three methods of distinguishing the gender of 
nouns in the English language : — 

1. By using different words; as, brother, sister; earl, 
countess ; boy, girl ; father, mother, etc. 

2. By different terminations of the same word; as, host, 
hostess ; benefactor, benefactress ; executor, executrix, 
etc. 

3. By prefixes and suffixes ; as, man-servant, maid- 
servant ; mermaid, merman ; Mr. Jones, Mrs. Jones, etc. 
(See Supplement for fuller lists.) 



128 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Exercise I. — Study the classification and gender of all 
the nouns in the following selection : — 

"Tis he, 'tis he : he comes to us 
From the depths of Tartarus. 
For what of evil doth he roam 
From his red and gloomy home 
In the center of the world, 
Where the sinful dead are hurled? 
Mark him as he moves along 
Drawn by horses black and strong, 
Such as may belong to Night 
Ere she takes her morning flight. 
Now the chariot stops : the god 
On our grassy world hath trod : 
Like a Titan steppeth he, 
Yet full of his divinity. 
On his mighty shoulders lie 
Raven locks, and in his eye 
A cruel beauty, such as none 
Of us may wisely look upon. 

— Cornwall. 



LESSON III. 
THE NOUN— PERSON. 



2. Person is that property of nouns which shows whether 
the speaker, the person or thing addressed, or the person or 
thing spoken of, is meant. 



THE NOUN— PERSON 129 

There are three persons, namely : — 

(a) First person, which denotes the speaker; as, "I, 
John, saw these things." 

(b) Second person, which denotes the person or thing 
addressed ; as, " My son, forget not my law." 

(c) Third person, which denotes the person or thing 
spoken of; as, " Leander had no fear — he cleft the wave." 

There is not much importance attached to "Person" in 
nouns. The noun is so rarely and so questionably used in the 
first and the second persons that there is little use of calling 
attention to this property in nouns. Pronouns, as will be 
seen, are more deeply affected in form by person, and are 
strongly inflected to denote this property. 

3. Number is that property of nouns which designates 
whether one or more than one is meant. 

There are two numbers, namely : — 

(a) Singular Number, that form of the noun which denotes 
that one is meant ; as, boy, penny, tree, ox, etc. 

(b) Plural Number, that form of the noun which denotes 
that more than one is meant ; as boys, boxes, oxen, knives, 
etc. 

The Number of nouns is distinguished in two ways, 
namely : — 

1. By terminations; as, girl, girls; box, boxes; lady, 
ladies ; knife, knives ; fife, fifes ; wife, wives ; valley, val- 
leys ; glass, glasses, etc. (See rules for spelling plurals in 
Supplement.) 

2. By different words ; as, man, men ; mouse, mice ; 
woman, women ; foot, feet, etc. 



130 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Exercise I. — Study the nouns and give the classification, 
gender, person, and number of each in the following selec- 
tion : — 

1 { Then the figure of the maiden 
Sleeping, and the lover near her, 
Whispering to her in her slumbers, 
Saying, ' Though you were far from me 
In the land of Sleep and Silence, 
Still the voice of love would reach you !' 
And the last of all the figures 
Was a heart within a circle, 
Drawn within a magic circle ; 
And the image had this meaning : 
• Naked lies your heart before me, 
To your naked heart I whisper.' " 



LESSON IV. 
THE NOUN— CASE. 



4. Case is that property of nouns which denotes their 
relation in sense to the other parts of the sentence in which 
they are used. 

There are five cases— (a) Nominative, (b) Objective, (c) 
Appositive, (d) Adjective, or Possessive, and (e) Adverbial. 

(a) The Nominative Case is the use of a noun to express 
the simple fundamental or the simple attributive element of 
a judgment ; as in the sentence, " Mary is a seamstress." 



THE NOUN— CASE 131 

(b) The Objective Case is the use of a noun to express the 
idea of the direct or the indirect recipient of an act as ex- 
pressed by a transitive verb in the active voice, etc. ; as in 
the sentence, " Mary gave me a book." 

(c) The Appositive Case is the use of a noun to explain or 
more clearly designate the person or thing named by another 
noun by denoting some peculiar habit, characteristic, trade, 
or calling, etc., of the person or thing named by the latter; 
as in the sentence, " Hobson, the Naval Constructor, is a 
hero." 

(d) The Adjective, or Possessive Case is that use of the 
noun with the possessive sign, or with the preposition "of," 
to denote ownership, authorship, origin, fitness, source, etc., 
of the person or thing designated by the noun with which it 
is used; as in the expressions, "children's shoes," "the 
sun's rays," " the natives of Cuba," etc. 

(e) The Adverbial Case is that use of the noun with or 
without a preposition to denote the time, place, etc., of an 
action, being, or state; as in the sentences — "John went 
home yesterday " ; " We arrived in the city at daybreak," 

There is another use of nouns in our language, which 
should be noted — the use in naming the person addressed. 
This is called the Independent Case. It has no syn- 
thetic connection with the expressions near which it occurs. 
It corresponds to the Vocative Case of the Latin language. 
In analysis, the meaning of such nouns should be noted, and 
they may be designated as " Independent by direct address " ; 
as, " Stand, the ground's your own, my braves." 

Yet another use of nouns deserves attention. In the sen- 



132 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

tence, "The cars having gone, we returned to the city by 
boat," "cars" is usually designated as being in the Nom- 
inative Absolute Case. There is more sound than sense in 
such a name. The sense expressed by "The cars having 
gone" is synthetically related to the idea of action ex- 
pressed by " returned," as we " returned " by boat because 
the cars had gone. If the real relation in meaning is to fix 
the case of nouns, then the case of "cars" in the above 
sentence is adverbial — the basic part, or element, of the 
adverbial element expressed by " The cars having gone," an 
adverb of cause, or reason. 



LESSON V. 

EXERCISES WITH NOUNS. 

Exercise I. — Write five sentences to illustrate the Nom- 
inative Case of nouns. 

Exercise II. — Write five sentences to illustrate the Ob- 
jective Case of nouns, and name the kind of object in each. 

Exercise III. — Write five sentences to illustrate the Ap- 
positive Case of nouns. 

Exercise IV. — Write five sentences to illustrate the Ad- 
jective Case of nouns. 

Exercise V. — Write five sentences to illustrate the Ad- 
verbial Case of nouns. 

Exercise VI. — Write five sentences to illustrate the 



THE PRONOUN 133 

Vocative Case, or Nominative Absolute Case, or simply the 
ply the " independent use" of the noun. 

Exercise VII. — Study out and parse, that is, name the 
classification, gender, person, number, case, and construc- 
tion of all the nouns in the following selection : — 

Model: " Waywassimo " noun, proper, masculine (by 
personification), third, singular, nominative — subject of verb 
4 'smote." 

11 Then Waywassimo, the lightning, 
Smote the doorway of the caverns, 
With his war-club smote the doorways, 
Smote the jetting crags of sandstone, 
And the thunder, Annemeekee, 
Shouted down into the caverns, 
Saying, 'Where is Paw-Puk-Keewis?' 
And the crags fell, and beneath them 
Dead among the rocky ruins 
Lay the cunning Paw-Puk-Keewis, 
Lay the handsome Yenadizze, 
Slain in his own human figure." 



LESSON VI. 
II.— THE PRONOUN. 

DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION. 

I. Definition. — A Pronoun (Latin pro, for, and nomen, 
name) is a w r ord used for, or instead of, a noun. 



134 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

II. Classification : — 

1. According to their structure, pronouns are classified as 
follows : — 

(a) Simple, when in their simplest, original form; as, I, 
he, thou, that, etc. 

(b) Reflexive, when used to express an idea that inten- 
sifies an idea expressed by a noun or another pronoun; as, 
myself, himself, itself, etc. 

These are formed by prefixing certain forms of the simple 
personal pronouns to "self," and they intensify their own 
antecedent. 

(c) Compound, when used to broaden the scope of the 
idea they express, or of the idea limited by the idea they 
express ; as, whoever, whatever, whosoever, etc. 

These are formed by suffixing the words "ever," "so," 
and "soever" to the simple relative pronouns "who," 
"which" and "what." 

2. According to their use, or their natures, pronouns are 
classified as follows : — 

(a) Personal Pronouns, such as by their forms denote the 
person, number and case, and in the third singular, the 
gender; as, "I," "thou," "he," "she" and "it," and 
their declined forms. 

(b) Relative Pronouns, such as are used to show the rela- 
tion between the idea expressed by some noun or pronoun 
and a related judgment expressed in a clause element, as in 
the expression, "The apples that you gave me," etc.; as, 
"who," "which," "what," "that," and "as" where a 
comparison is expressed, after such, much, many, and same, 



THE PKONOUN— PKOPERTIES 135 

and " than" when the comparatives "more," "less," etc., 
are ased ; and "but," equaling in sense "that" plus 
"not." 

(c) Interrogative Pronouns, when they are used to ask a 
question ; as in the sentence, " Whose book is that?" 

(d) Possessive Pronouns, when they are used to express 
the idea of both the possessor and the thing possessed ; as, 
"mine," "thine," "his," "hers," "ours," "yours" and 
"theirs." 

(e) Adjective Pronouns, such as express ideas that limit 
the ideas expressed by nouns, by denoting possession or 
ownership, etc. ; as, "my," "thy," "your," "its," "his," 
"her." 



Exercise I. — Write out in group lists, and carefully com- 
mit to memory, all the pronouns of the various classes. 

Exercise II. — Write a sentence to illustrate the use of 
each of the above classes of pronouns. 



LESSON VII. 

THE PRONOUN— PROPERTIES. 

III. The Properties of Pronouns are the same as those of 
Nouns, namely, Gender, Person, Number, and Case. Be- 
cause the Pronoun is one of the most highly inflected parts of 
speech in our language, a careful study of its declension is 
very necessary. 



136 



ENGLISH SENTENCE 



IV. Declension of the Pronoun is the giving of the various 
forms it assumes to denote the Gender, Person, Number, and 
Case. 

DECLENSION. 



Personal Pronouns. 



Singular 
Plural 



Singular 
Plural 



Singular 
Plural 



Singular 
Plural 



Singular 
Plural 



my 
our 



thy 
your 



Nominative. Possessive 

First Person. 
I mine 

we ours 

Second Person. 
thou or you thine 
ye or you yours 

Third Person — Masculine. 
he his his 

they theirs their 

Third Person — Feminine. 
she hers her 

they theirs their 

Third Person — Neuter. 
it (its) its 

'they theirs their 



Adjective. Objective. 



me 

us 

thee 
you 

him 
them 

her 
them 

it 
them 



Singular 
Plural 



Relative Pronouns. 
who whose whose whom 



who 



whose 



whose whom 



EXEECISES IN PARSING PRONOUNS 137 

As the other pronouns have very little variety of form, 
and as these few forms are usually correctly used, no further 
space will here be given to this subject. 

The nominative form of the relative "who" is constantly 
used instead of the objective form "whom." This error in 
use should have been corrected long before the pupil has 
reached this grade of work, by a constant and careful super- 
vision of the oral language of the pupil, on the part of the 
teacher. 

The Case of Pronouns is as follows : — 

1. As subject of a verb, always nominative. 

2. When used as an attribute, it takes the form that cor- 
responds to the case of its subject :— 

(a) As Nominative Attribute, always nominative. 

(b) As Objective Attribute, always objective. 

3. When used to express the basic related idea in a prepo- 
sitional phrase-element, the pronoun takes the form of the 
objective case. 



LESSON VIII. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING PRONOUNS. 

Exercise I. — Study out and classify, and name the Gen- 
der, Person, Number, and Case, that is, parse, the pronouns 
in the following selection : — 

" 'If thou only lookest at me, 
I am happy, I am happy. 
As the lilies of the prairie 



138 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

When they feel the dew upon them.' 

1 Sweet thy breath is as the fragrance 
Of the wild-flowers in the morning, 
As their fragrance is at evening, 
In the Moon when leaves are falling !' 

'Does not all the blood within me 
Leap to meet thee, leap to meet thee, 
As the springs to meet the sunshine, 
In the Moon when lights are brightest?' 

'Onaway, my heart sings to thee, 
Sings with joy when thou art near me, 
As the sighing, singing branches 
In the pleasant Moon of strawberries.' 

'When thou art not pleased, beloved, 
Then my heart is sad and darkened, 
As the shining river darkens 
When the clouds drop shadows on it.' 

'When thou smilest, my beloved, 
Then my troubled heart is lightened 
As in sunshine gleam the ripples 
That the cold wind makes in rivers.' 

'Smiles the earth, and smile the waters, 
Smile the cloudless skies above us, 
But I lose the way of smiling 
When thou art no longer near me!' 

'I myself, myself! behold me! 
Blood of my beating heart, behold me! 
awake, awake, beloved! 
Onaway! awake, beloved!' " 



THE VERB 139 

LESSON IX. 
III.— THE VERB. 

DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION. 

I. Definition. — A verb is a word that asserts action, 
being, state, or quality, of its subject. All attributive verbs 
express an idea of action and also assert this action as an 
attribute of their subjects. 

II. Classification. — According as they express the pred- 
icator alone, or as they express both the predicator and the 
thing predicated, verbs are classified as follows : — 

1. Copulative, when they are used to assert an agreement 
between their subjects and some attribute of their subjects ; 
as in the sentence, "John is writing." 

Some Copulative Verbs have this assertive power, while 
others have this power and may have other uses. Hence, 
Copulative Verbs are sub-classed as follows : — 

a. Pure Copulative Verbs, such as are used only to assert 
agreement; as the forms of the verb "be," namely — "be," 
"am," "is," "are," "was," "were," and their other con- 
jugated forms. 

b. Impure Copulative Verbs, such as may express asser- 
tions of agreement, and may also have other uses. They are 
essentially of two kinds, as follows : — 

(a) Sense Verbs, such as express mind-decisions of agree- 
ment, the certainty of which is left to the power of one of 
the "special senses" to determine; as, "looks," "smells," 
"tastes," "sounds," and "feels," etc. 



140 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

(b) Mixed Copulative Verbs, such as are used to assert 
mind-decisions of agreement, and may at the same time pos- 
sess the nature of the attributive verb ; as in the sentence, 
"He appears scholarly," etc. 

2. Attributive Verbs, such as are used both to express 
the idea of an attribute of action and to assert agreement 
between this attribute and its subject ; as in the sentence, 
"John reads" (="John is reading 1 "). "The boy studies his 
lesson" (="The boy is studying his lesson"), etc. 

According to the mode of forming their Past Indicative 
and Perfect Infinitive, verbs are classified as follows : — 

a. Regular, when the past indicative and perfect infini- 
tive are regularly formed by adding "d" or "ed" to the 
present indicative ; as, love, loved, loved, etc. 

b. Irreg'ular, when the past indicative and perfect infini- 
tive are formed irregularly ; as, gx>, went, g'One. 

c. Defective, when some of the "principal parts," as 
above named are wanting ; as, must, oug'ht, etc. 

d. Redundant, w x hen there is more than one form for one 
or more of the principal parts ; as, dream, dreamed, or 
dreamt, dreamed, or dreamt. (See list of Defective and 
Redundant verbs, with Irregular verbs, in supplement.) 

According to their peculiar nature, attributive verbs 
are : — 

(a) Intransitive, when they express an idea of action that 
is not received by some person or thing ; as in the sentence, 
"The boy runs." 

(b) Transitive, when they express an idea of action that 
is received by some person or thing ; as in the sentences, 



THE VERB 141 

"The boy loves his mother," or "Mother is loved by the 

boy." 

Exercise I. — Write five sentences using pure copulative 
verbs. 

Exercise II. — Write five sentences using the five "special 
sense verbs" to assert the agreement. 

Exercise III. — Write five sentences using intransitive 
attributive verbs in predicate. 

Exercise IV. — Write five sentences using transitive 
attributive verbs in predicate. 

Exercise V. — Classify all the verbs (not infinitives) in 
the following selection : — 

"From his place rose Hiawatha, 

Bade farewell to old Nokomis, 

Spake in whispers, spake in this wise, 

Did not wake the guests that slumbered : 
'I am going, Nokomis, 

On a long and distant journey, 

To the portals of the sunset, 

To the regions of the home-wind, 

Of the Northwest wind, Keewaydin ; 

But the guests I leave behind me, • 

In your watch and ward I leave them ; 

See that never harm comes near them, 

See that never fear molests them. 

Never danger nor suspicion, 

Never want of food or shelter, 

In the lodge of Hiawatha.' " 



142 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

LESSON X. 
THE VERB— Continued. 

III. Properties. — The Properties of the Verb are the 
various modifications, or inflections, it undergoes to indicate 
the voice, mode, tense, and agreements of the verb. The 
names of these properties are (1) Voice, (2) Mode, (3) Tense, 
and (4) Person and Number, or Agreement. 

1. Voice is that property of the Transitive Attributive 
Verb which designates whether the subject of the verb 
names the person or thing that performs the act, which is 
received by some other person or thing, or whether the person 
or thing named by the subject receives the action from some 
other agent. 

Transitive Verbs have two voices, namely : — 

a. Active Voice, when the subject of the verb names the 
person or thing that performs an act that is understood to be 
received by some other person or thing; as, "A great 
meteor struck the earth." 

b. Passive Voice, when the subject of the verb names the 
recipient of the action expressed by the predicate, from some 
other agency ; as, "The earth was struck by a great meteoric 
stone." 

Exercise I. — Write ten sentences in which the predicate 
verb is active transitive — taking the "Direct Object." 

Exercise II. — Rewrite the ten sentences of Exercise I., 
but expressing the sense with the verb in the passive voice. 



THE VERB— PKOPEKTIES 143 

Note what has become of the former direct object, and 
also of the former subject. 

Exercise III. — Classify all the verbs in the sentences in 
Exercise I. above. 



LESSON XI. 

THE VERB— PROPERTIES— Continued. 

2. Mode is that inflection of the verb by which the man- 
ner in which assertions are made by the verb is shown. 

There are four Modes, namely — (a) Indicative, (b) Poten- 
tial, (c) Subjunctive, and (d) Imperative. 

a. The Indicative Mode is that used to assert in the sim- 
plest form the agreement between the fundamental and the 
attributive elements of a judgment; as, "James writes," 
"Mary is industrious," etc. 

b. The Potential Mode is the use of auxiliaries with some 
form of the infinitive to denote the possibility, permission, 
will, duty, or obligation to perform an act; as, "I may go," 
"I can go," "I should go," etc. 

Observation. — The intervention of the auxiliaries may destroy the mod- 
ification of the verb to denote the person and number of the subject. 

The Potential Mode is signified by the mode auxiliaries, 
ean, could, may, must, might, ought, would, should. 



Exercise I. — Write ten sentences in which the verb is 
in the Indicative Mode. 



144 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Exercise II. — Write ten sentences using the verb in the 
Potential Mode. 

Exercise III.— Study out the classification, voice and 
mode of all the verbs in Exercises I. and II. 



LESSON XII. 

THE VERB— PROPERTIES— MODE— Continued. 

c. The Subjunctive Mode is the method of assertion in 
which the agreement in the judgment expressed in the prin- 
cipal sentence rests upon a condition as expressed in a sub- 
ordinate clause. 

In this mode, the person and number of the verb are 
affected. The words if, tho, except, unless, etc., in the con- 
ditional clause, are the connectives which denote the con- 
dition ; as in the sentence, "Tho he slay me, yet will I love 
him." 

d. The Imperative Mode is the use of the verb to express 
a request, a command, or an entreaty. The peculiarity of 
this mode is, that the subject is omitted; (see discussion of 
the Imperative Sentence, Part I.) as, "Ring the bells." 

Many authors regard the infinitive as a verb, and there- 
fore discuss what they are pleased to call the "Infinitive 
Mode." But, since mode is the "manner of assertion of 
action, being, or state," and since infinitives do not and 
can not assert, we consider ourselves fully justified in dis- 
regarding an "Infinitive Mode." All modes express ideas of 



THE VERB— PKOPERTIES— TENSE 145 

action in precisely the same way. It is the manner of the 
assertion that we consider in the study of mode. The forms, 
uses, and relations of the infinitive constitute the proper 
study of that part of speech. 



Exercise I.-— Write ten sentences in which the verb is in 
the Subjunctive Mode. 

Exercise II. — Write ten sentences in which the verb is 
in the Imperative Mode. 



LESSON XIII. 

THE VERB— PROPERTIES— TENSE. 

3. Tense is that form of the verb, or that use of auxili- 
aries, which in a general way denotes the time, with reference 
to the present, of an action, being, or state. 

In the Indicative Mode there are six tenses, all of which 
clearly distinguish time, with reference to the present time. 
These tenses are as follows : — 

a. Present Tense, which denotes present time, and is 
signified by the present indicative form of the verb ; as, "I 
write," "I am writing 1 ," etc. 

b. Past Tense, which denotes past time, and is signified 
by the past indicative form of the verb ; as, "I wrote," "I 
was writing*," etc. 

c. Future Tense, which denotes future time, and is signi- 



146 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

fied by rne present infinitive of the verb, togetner witn the 
auxiliaries "shall" or "will," as tense signs, and these 
auxiliaries with "be" in the progressive form; as, "I shall 
write," "I shall' be writing," etc. 

d. The Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense, which denotes 
the present completeness of action, being, or state. This 
tense is denoted by the perfect infinitive together with the 
use of the auxiliaries "have," "has," or "hast" ; and these 
auxiliaries with "been" and the "ing-infinitive" in the 
perfect progressive form; as, "I have written," "I have 
been writing," etc. 

e. The Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense, which denotes 
action, being, or state, as having reached completion at some 
past time. This tense is expressed by the perfect infinitive 
together with the use of the auxiliaries "had" or "hadst" ; 
and these with "been" and the "ing-infinitive" in the 
pluperfect progressive form; as, "I had written," "I had 
been writing," etc. 

f. The Future Perfect Tense, which denotes action, being, 
or state to reach completeness at some future time. This 
tense is denoted by the use of the perfect infinitive, together 
with the auxiliaries "shall" and "will" with "have" ; and 
these auxiliaries with "been" and the "ing-infinitive" in 
the progressive form; as, "I shall have written," "He will 
have been writing," etc. 



Exercise I. — Write three sentences with the verb in the 

Present Tense Indicative. 



THE VERB— PROPERTIES— TENSE 147 

Exercise II. — Write three sentences with the verb in 
the Past Tense Indicative. 

Exercise III. — Write three sentences with the verb in 
the Future Tense Indicative. 

Exercise IV. — Write three sentences with the verb in 
the Perfect Tense Indicative. 

Exercise V. — Write three sentences with the verb Pluper- 
fect (Past Perfect) Indicative. 

Exercise VI. — Write three sentences with the verb 
Future Perfect Indicative. 



LESSON XIV. 

THE VERB— PROPERTIES— TENSE— Continued. 

In the Potential Mode there are four so-called tenses. A 
close study of the forms will disclose the fact that the real 
time expressed is very indefinite. 

a. Present Tense ; as, "I may go," "He can study," etc. 

b. Past Tense; as, "I might learn," "You could try," 
etc. 

c. Perfect Tense ; as, "He may have gone," etc. 

d. Pluperfect; as, "John might have succeeded," etc. 

Carefully study the real time expressed in the above illus- 
trative sentences. What peculiar things do you note in each, 
with reference to the time of the actions? (Review what is 
said in Part I. concerning "Mode Auxiliaries.") 

Exercise I. — Illustrate each of the so-called tenses of 
the Potential Mode with three original sentences. 



148 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

In the Subjunctive Mode there are six tenses, as in the 
Indicative, and the time, with reference to the present, is in 
a general way tolerably clearly distinguished in each. Not 
all the tense forms in this mode are in constant use, but all 
are allowable. 

Exercise I. — Illustrate each of the tenses of the Subjunc- 
tive Mode with two original sentences. 



In the Imperative Mode there is but one tense, the 
present, and this is indicated by the present indicative form 
of the verb, either in the common, or in the progressive 
form; as, "Stand," or "Be standing/' etc. Possibly there 
is an emphatic form of the verb in this mode. If so, it con- 
sists of "do," together with the above forms ; as, "Do thou 
stand," "Do thou be standing." These latter forms are 
hardly in present use, however, and therefore scarcely merit 
notice in a study of strictly modern English. 

Exercise I. — Illustrate the Imperative Mode with five 
original sentences. 



LESSON XV. 

THE VERB— EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Exercise I. — Study so that you can name at sight and in 
the order here given the Classification, Voice, Mode, Tense, 
Person and Number of all the verbs in the following 
selection : — 



THE VERB— EXERCISES IX PARSIXG 149 

"Many days they talked together, 
Questioned, listened, waited, answered. 
Much the mighty Mudjekeewis 
Boasted of his ancient prowess, 
Of his perilous adventures, 
His indomitable courage, 
His invulnerable body. 

"Patiently sat Hiawatha, 
Listening to his father's boasting , 
With a smile he sat and listened, 
Uttered neither threat nor menace, 
Neither word nor look betrayed him, 
But his heart was hot within him, 
Like a living coal his heart was. 

"Who shall say what thoughts and visions 
Fill the fiery brains of young men? 
Who shall say what dreams of beauty 
Filled the heart of Hiawatha? 
All he told to old Nokomis, 
When he reached the lodge at sunset, 
Was the meeting with his father, 
Was his fight with Mudjekeewis ; 
Not a word he said of arrows, 
Not a word of Laughing Water." 



150 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

LESSON XVI. 

IV.— THE INFINITIVE. 

I. Definition : — An Infinitive is a word used to express 
an idea of action, being, or state, without the limitation of 
the person and number of its subject. 

II. Classification : — 

1. According to their nature and use, Infinitives are clas- 
sified as follows : — 

a. Substantive Infinitives, when used merely to name an 
action, being, or state ; that is, as nouns. 

b. Attributive Infinitives, when used to express ideas of 
predicate attributes of their subjects, whether their subjects 
be nominative or objective. 

c. Participial Infinitives, when used as adjectives or as 
adverbs, they express ideas that qualify ideas expressed by 
nouns, verbs, or other Infinitives. 

2. According to their form, Infinitives are classified as 
follows : — 

a. Progressive Infinitives— the ing-forms used to express 
the idea of action, being, or state in progress. 

b. Present Infinitives — the root-forms used to express 
ideas present of action, being, or state by the present indica- 
tive form of the verb usually accompanied by the word "to." 

c. Perfect Infinitives — the ed-forms and the corresponding 
irregular forms from irregular verbs used to express the idea 
of completed action, being, or state. 



THE INFINITIVE 151 

Exercise I. — Write two sentences to illustrate each the 
Substantive Infinitive, the Attributive Infinitive, and the 
Participial Infinitive. 

Exercise II. — Write two sentences to illustrate each the 
Progressive Infinitive, the Present Infinitive, and the Perfect 
Infinitive. 

Exercise III. — Discuss the form and use of all the Infin- 
itives in the following selection : — 

"From Kabibbnokka's forehead 
From his snow-besprinkled tresses, 
Drops of sweat fell fast and heavy, 
Making dints upon the ashes, 
As along the eaves of lodges, 
As from drooping boughs of hemlock 
Drips the melting snow in springtime, 
Making hollows in the snowdrifts. 

"Till at last he rose defeated, 
Could not bear the heat and laughter, 
Could not bear the merry singing, 
But rushed headlong through the doorway, 
Stamped upon the crusted snow-drifts, 
Stamped upon the lakes and rivers, 
Made the snow upon them harder, 
Made the ice upon them thicker, 
Challenged Shingebis, the diver, 
To come forth and wrestle with him 
To come forth and wrestle naked, 
On the frozen fens and moorlands, 



152 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

"Forth went Shingebis, the diver, 
Wrestled all night with the North-wind, 
Wrestled naked on the moorlands 
With the fierce Kabibonokka, 
Till his panting breath grew fainter, 
Till his frozen grasp grew feebler, 
Till he reeled and staggered backward. " 



LESSON XVII. 
V.— THE ADJECTIVE. 



I. Definition. — An adjective is a word used to express 
an idea that limits or qualifies ideas expressed by nouns ; as, 
"green leaves," "a parched desert," "running* water," etc. 

II. Classification. — According as the ideas expressed by 
adjectives limit or qualify ideas expressed by nouns, adjec- 
tives are classified as follows : — 

1. Definitive Adjectives, when they express ideas that 
limit by denoting what, whose, how many, etc. ; as, "this 
pen," "John's book," "nine men," etc. 

2. Descriptive Adjectives, when they express ideas that 
qualify by denoting what kind; that is, by denoting some 
quality, or some modifying action of the person or thing 
named by the noun; as, "sweet apples," "warm weather," 
"falling rain," "running stream," "roasted vegetables," etc. 

III. Properties. — Descriptive Adjectives have one prop- 
erty, that is, Comparison. 



THE ADJECTIVE 153 

1. Definition. — Comparison is that form or modification 
of qualifying adjectives by which they denote greater or 
lesser degrees of the quality possessed by the person or thing 
named by the noun. 

2. Degrees. — With regard to the positive, or the natural, 
or the standard degree of the quality, there are two degrees 
of comparison, namely, the Comparative and the Super- 
lative. 

a. The Comparative Degree denotes a quantity of the 
quality somewhat higher or lower, greater or less, than the 
standard quality; as, ''wiser actions," "a more beautiful 
sunset," etc. 

The Comparative Degree is regularly expressed by the 
adjective plus the suffix "-er," or with the words "more" or 
"less" placed before the adjective. 

b. The Superlative Degree denotes the highest or the 
lowest, the greatest or the least quantity of the quality, as 
compared with the standard quality ; as, "the tallest trees," 
"the sweetest apples," etc. 

The Superlative Degree is expressed by the adjective plus 
the syllable "-est," or with the words "most" or "least" 
placed before the adjective. 



Exercise I. — Write five sentences to illustrate the use 
of the Definitive Adjective. 

Exercise II. — Write five sentences to illustrate the use 
of the Descriptive Adjective. 

Exercise III. — AVrite two sentences to illustrate each the 



154 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative Degrees of 
the Descriptive Adjective. 

Exercise IV. — Classify all the Adjectives of the following, 
and give the degrees of comparison of all the Descriptive 
Adjectives : — 

There Tityus was to see, who took his birth 
From heaven, his nursing from the foodful earth 
Here his gigantic limbs, with large embrace, 
Infold nine acres of infernal space. 
A rav'nous vulture in his open side 
Her crooked beak and cruel talons try'd : 
Still for the growing liver digg'd his breast, 
The growing liver still supplied the feast. 

— Virgil (Dry den's TV.). 

Note. — See tables of Irregular Comparison of Adjectives in Supplement. 



LESSON XVIII. 
VI.— THE ADVERB. 



I. Definition. — An Adverb is a word that is used to 
express an idea that qualifies or limits ideas of action, being, 
or state expressed by verbs or infinitives, by denoting the 
time, place, cause, manner, etc., of the action, being, or 
state ; and to intensify ideas of quality expressed by adjec- 
tives and other adverbs by denoting the degree of the quality 
in the regular, or in a general, way. 



THE ADVERB 155 

II. Classification. — According to meaning, Adverbs are 
classified as follows : — 

1. Adverbs of Manner — such as express ideas that qualify 
ideas of action, etc., by denoting the kind of action, etc. ; as, 
4 'running swiftly," "sleeping quietly," etc. 

2. Adverbs of Place — such as express ideas that limit 
ideas of action, etc., by denoting the place or direction of the 
action, etc. ; as, "standing there," "Here am I," etc. 

3. Adverbs of Time — such as express ideas that limit 
ideas of action, etc., by denoting the time of the action, etc. ; 
as, "Then broke his mighty heart," etc. 

4. Adverbs of Cause — such as express ideas that limit 
ideas of action, etc., by denoting the why of the action, 
etc.; as, "Therefore he suffers," "Hence we so conclude," 
etc. 

5. Adverbs of Degree — such as express ideas that inten- 
sify the ideas expressed by descriptive adjectives or adverbs 
of manner; as, "a most civilized nation," "water running 
very swiftly," "very delicious fruit," etc. 

6. Adverbs of Reason — closely related to adverbs of cause. 

7. Modal Adverbs — such as so modify the assertion of 
agreement as to express any degree of certainty from an 
assertion of positive agreement to an assertion of positive 
disagreement, or denial of agreement. (See lists in 
Supplement.) 

Adverbs of Condition, of Concession, of Agency, of Accom- 
paniment, etc., express various shades of meaning in the 
form of phrase-elements, and sometimes in the form of clause- 
elements. Such adverbs are to be better studied in analysis. 



156 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

The need of a name for such will there be felt, and the mean- 
ing's should suggest, to the thinker, the proper name. 
These adverbs have no word-representative in the language, 
as is practically true of adverbs of cause and adverbs of 
reason, save in the interrogative "why" and in the sum- 
mation of causes or reasons expressed by "therefore," 
"hence," etc. 

III. Properties. — Comparison, Adverbs of Manner, 
derived as they are from descriptive adjectives, are regularly 
compared in the same manner as are descriptive adjectives. 
Review Comparison of Adjectives, and apply the principles 
of comparison to Adverbs of Manner. 



Exercise I.— Write two sentences to illustrate each of 
the six classes of adverbs given above, using different adverbs 
in each case. # 

Exercise II. — Study out the classification, and the com- 
parison where possible, of all the adverbial words and phrases 
in the following sentences : — 

1. The sun slowly sank in the glowing west. 

2. The mighty waves were tossing tumultuously. 

3. Soon fell the evening shadows thickly round. 

4. The wounded wolf snapped viciously at the hunter. 

5. He came to secure the prisoner. 

6. Marmaduke was returning from the city with his 
daughter. 

7. Napoleon fled ingloriously from the fatal field. 

8. That memorable day was exceedingly sultry. 



CONNECTIVES 157 

9. When will man cease to be inhuman toward his fellow 
man? 

10. Thither came the lads and lasses. 

Note.— See Adverbs in Supplement. 

Note. — See tables of Irregular Comparison of Adverbs in Supplement. 



LESSON XIX. 
VII.— CONNECTIVES. 



I. Definition. — Connectives are such words as are used 
to express the relations between ideas or judgments expressed 
by words, phrases, clauses or sentences. 

II. Classification. — According to the rank of the ideas 
or judgments between which they express relations, Connec- 
tives are classified as follows : — 

1. Coordinate Connectives, such as are used to express 
the relations existing between elements of the same rank in 
sentence structure ; as, "and," "or," etc. 

According to the nature of the relations they express, 
Coordinate Connectives are classified as follows :— 

a. Copulative, such as are used to express the relation of 
aggregation of ideas or judgments of the same rank and 
coordinately used; as, "and," "also," etc. 

b. Adversative, such as are used to express the idea of 
contrary conditions existing in the members joined; as, 
"but," "tho," etc. 

c. Alternative, such as are used to express the idea of 



158 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

the relation of a choice, preference, or alternative in the ideas 
or judgments used disjunctively ; as, "or," "nor," etc. 
Alternative Connectives may be classified as follows :— 

1. As to form — 

a. Simple; as, "or," "nor," "either," "neither." 

b. Double; as, "either . . . or," "neither . . . nor." 

2. As TO NATURE 

a. Positive; as, "or," "either . . . or." 

b. Negative; as, "nor," "neither . . . nor." 



Exercise I. — Write two sentences to illustrate each the 
Copulative, the Adversative, and the Alternative Connectives. 

Exercise II. — Study and classify all the Coordinate Con- 
nectives in Numbers 11, 14, 17, 18, 25, 29 and 31 in General 
Exercises in Analysis, Part I. 



LESSON XX. 

CONNECTIVES— Continued. 

2. Subordinate Connectives are such as are used to 
express the relations existing between ideas or judgments of 
unequal rank in structure. 

Subordinate Connectives are sub-classed as follows: — 
a. Correlative — such as are used in pairs, the one answer- 
ing or referring to the other. Some members of this class 



CONNECTIVES 159 

are used also as coordinate connectives. Usually, from the 
nature of the relation they express, it is quite easy to deter- 
mine whether they are coordinate or subordinate connectives. 
Following are some of the correlative connectives : — "both 
. . . and," "as . . . as," "if . . . then," "so . . . as," 
"notwithstanding . . . yet," "tho . . . yet," "either . . v . 
or," "neither . .* . nor." 

b. Conditional Connectives, such as are used to express 
the relations existing between principal judgments and sub- 
ordinate judgments, when the subordinate judgment is the 
condition upon whicli the principal judgment becomes a fixed 
fact; as, "if," "tho," "unless," etc. 

c. Relative Pronouns, such words as are used to express 
the relation existing between the subordinate judgment 
expressed by the adjective clause and the idea that this sub- 
ordinate judgment limits or qualifies. 

Examples. — a. Simple Relative Pronouns — "who," 
"which," "that," "what," "as," "but"; b. Compound 
Relative Pronouns — "whoever," "whoso," "whosoever," 
"whichever," "whichsoever," "whatever," and "what- 
soever." 

d. Relative Adverbs, such adverbs as are used to express 
the relation existing between the subordinate related judg- 
ment expressed by a subordinate clause and the idea ex- 
pressed by a noun or substantive; as, "when," "where," 
"why," etc. 

e. Conjunctive Adverbs, such adverbs as are used to 
express the relation existing between a subordinate related 
judgment and some idea of action, being, or state which the 



160 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

subordinate related judgment limits by denoting the time, 
place, etc., of the action, etc. 

Examples.— "Then," "when," "where," "while," "as," 
"after," "before," "now," "since," "therefore," "till," 
"until," "wherefore," '.'why." 

f. Prepositions, such words as are used to express the 
relation existing between subordinate related ideas and the 
ideas that these subordinate related ideas limit. 

Examples.— "On," "in," "by," "into," "from," "un- 
der," "of," etc. 



Exercise I. — Write two sentences to illustrate each the 
use of the five classes of Subordinate Connectives. 

Exercise II. — Study and classify all the Connectives in 
Exercises 25, 26, 28, 32, 34, and 36, in General Exercises in 
Analysis, Part I. 



LESSON XXI. 
VHL— EXCLAMATIVES. 



Definition. — Exclamatives are words used to express 
surprise, enthusiasm, sentiment, scorn, hatred, admonition, 
admiration, disregard, etc. 

Examples.— "Oh!", "Behold!", "Hurrah!", "Hallelu- 
jah!'"', "Beware!", "Glory!", "Wonderful!", "Pooh!", etc. 

In analyzing the judgment as expressed by the sentence, 
the significance of such expressions ought to be considered. 
Such words express ideas that do not enter into the structure of 



EXCLAMATIVES 161 

the judgment, and hence the words expressing such ideas have 
no grammatical connection with the other parts of the sen- 
tence. Their office is to express to us something of the con- 
dition of the mind of the author. Such words are attendant 
elements in the expression of judgments. They deserve our 
attention, as they serve to heighten our appreciation of the 
feelings and purposes of the author. 



SUPPLEMENT. 



RULES FOR SPELLING PLURALS. 

Rule I. — The plurals of nouns are regularly formed by 
adding s to the singular form ; as, "boy," "boys." 

Rule II. — The plurals of nouns ending in y preceded by 
a consonant are formed by changing final y to i, and adding 
es to this form; as, "pony," "ponies." 

Rule III. — The plurals of nouns ending in f or fe are 
formed by changing the f or fe to v and adding es to this 
form; as, "knife," "knives," etc. 

There are some exceptions to Rule III. ; as, "fife," 
"fifes" ; "staff," "staffs," etc., following Rule I. 

Rule IV. — The plurals of nouns ending with the sound 
of s, sh, eh, x, z, or j, are formed by adding es to the singu- 
lar ; as, "church," "churches," etc. 

Rule V. — The plurals of most nouns ending in o preceded 
by a consonant sound are formed by adding es to the singu- 
lar ; as, "negro," "negroes," etc. 

163 



164 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Rule VI. — The plurals of some nouns are denoted by 
different words ; as, "man," "men," etc. 

Rule VII. — The plurals of signs, letters, figures, etc., 
are formed by adding 's to the singular ; as, "the +'s," "the 
4's," "the a's," etc. 

Rule VIII. — In compound words the basic part is usually 
pluralized ; as, "sister-in-law," "sisters-in-law," etc. 

Rule IX. — In some compound words both parts are plu- 
ralized ; as, "man-servant," "men-servants," etc. 

Rule X. — Some nouns have two plurals, that used being 
governed by the use intended; as, "brother," "brothers" (by 
blood), or "brethren" by social relation, etc. 

Rule XI. — Some nouns have no plural form ; as, "deer," 
"sheep," etc. 

Rule XII. — To spell possessive forms singular and 
plural. 

1. Singular. — First spell the singular form, then add the 
possessive sign ('s). If the singular ends in s, sometimes 
only the apostrophe (') is added; as, "John," "John's." 

2. Plural. — First spell the plural, then add the possessive 
sign ('s). If the plural ends in s, the apostrophe ( ' ) alone is 
usually added; as, "boy's hats," "boys' hats." 

Note.— Foreign nouns are variously pluralized in the languages to which 
they belong. An English plural is desirable in their use in English. Later 
on, when studies in science are pursued, foreign plurals may properly and 
profitably be learned. 

To the Teacher. —Exercises in spelling plurals may be profitably intro- 
duced here. Long lists of words may be found in almost any common spell- 
ing-book, which will serve for this purpose. This should be done, as an 
intelligent application of the above rules will be of real practical value. 



CAPITAL LETTERS AXD PUNCTUATION 165 

II. 
CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. 

The general uses of capital letters should already be 
accurately known by pupils in this stage of the study of the 
English language. Correct capitalization should be taught 
incidentally, but persistently, in connection with all the 
language work of the preceding years, as well as should also 
the uses of the period and other marks of punctuation, 
especially so far as their fixed uses are concerned. Scarcely 
does one ever learn all the uses of the comma, but with the 
proper effort, the fixed uses of all the marks of punctuation 
may be properly learned by every pupil before the age of 
twelve. 

Let the teacher see to it that the pupils in the grades 
receive the above knowledge in connection with the written 
composition and other language work. Punctuation in its 
broader sense is learned only by punctuating, and the flexi- 
bility of the use of the comma, especially, will for a long 
time be a source of something akin to wonder to the student. 



III. 
CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

To " conjugate a verb" is to produce all the forms of the 
verb in all the different voices, modes, tenses, persons and 
numbers. 



166 



ENGLISH SENTENCE 



It is of extreme importance that all the above forms and 
all their uses be definitely known by every pupil. Too little 
attention is paid of late to the fixing of the correct forms and 
their uses in the minds of the pupils. 

Following is the conjugation of the verb " teach." 



TEACH. 

Principal Parts — present, teach ; 
infinitive, taught. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 



past, taught ; perfect 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. m 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I teach. We teach 

2. Thou teachest (you teach). Ye or you teach 

3. He teaches. They teach 

Past Tense. 

1. I taught. We taught. 

2. Thou taughtest (you taught). Ye or you taught. 

3. He taught. They taught. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall teach. We shall teach. 

2. Thou wilt (you will) teach. Ye or you will teach. 

3. He will teach. They will teach. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have taught. We have taught. 

2. Thou hast (you have) taught. Ye or you have taught. 

3. He has taught. They have taught. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS 167 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had taught. We had taught. 

2. Thou hadst (you had) Ye or you had taught. 

taught. 

3. He had taught. They had taught. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall have taught. We will have taught. 

2. Thou wilt (you will) have Ye or you will have taught. 

taught. 

3. He will have taught. They will have taught. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may teach. We may teach. 

2. Thou mayst (you may) Ye or you may teach. 

teach. 

3. He may teach. They may teach. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might teach. We might teach. 

2. Thou mightst (you might) Ye or you might teach. 

teach. 

3. He might teach. They might teach. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have taught. We may have taught. 

2. Thou mayst (you may) Ye or you may have taught. 

have taught. 

3. He may have taught. They may have taught. 



168 ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have taught. We might have taught. 

2. Thou mightst (you might) Ye or you might have taught. 

have taught. 

3. He might have taught. They might have taught. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I teach. If we teach. 

2. If thou (you) teach. If ye or you teach. 

3. If he teach. If they teach. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I taught. If we taught. 

2. If thou (you) taught. If ye or you taught. 

3. If he taught. If they taught. 

Future Tense. 

1. If I shall teach. If we shall teach. 

2. If thou (you) will teach. If ye or you will teach. 

3. If he will teach. If he will teach. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. If I have taught. If we have taught. 

2. If thou (you) have taught. If ye (you) have taught. 

3. If he has taught. If they have taught. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. If I had taught. If we had taught. 

2. If thou (you) had taught. If ye (you) had taught. 

3. If he had taught. If they had taught. 






CONJUGATION OF VEEBS 169 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. If I shall have taught. If we will have taught. 

2. If thou (you) will have If ye (you) will have taught. 

taught. 

3. If he will have taught. If they will have taught. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

2. Teach thou. 2. Teach ye. 

INFINITIVES. 

Simple. 
Present, to teach ; Perfect, taught ; Progressive, teaching. 

Compound. 
Active, having taught ; Passive, having been taught. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense I am taught. 

Past Tense I w^as taught. 

Future Tense I shall be taught. 

Present Perfect Tense ...... I have been taught. 

Past Perfect Tense I had been taught. 

Future Perfect Tense I shall have been taught. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense I may be taught. 

Past Tense I might be taught. 

Present Perfect Tense I may have been taught. 

Past Perfect Tense I might have been taught. 



170 



ENGLISH SENTENCE 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense If I be taught. 

Past Tense If I were taught. 

Future Tense If I shall be taught. 

Present Perfect Tense If I have been taught. 

Past Perfect Tense If I had been taught. 

Future Perfect Tense If I shall have been taught. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense Be taught or Be thou taught. 



IV. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS, 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Infinitive, 


abide 


abode 


abode 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


awake 


awoke, awaked 


awoke, awaked 


bear (bring forth) 


bore, bare 


born 


bear (carry) 


bore, bare 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten, beat 


begin 


began 


begun 


behold 


beheld 


beheld 


bend 


bent, bended 


bent, bended 


bereave 


bereft, bereaved 


bereft, bereaved 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bet 


bet, betted 


bet, betted 


bid 


bade, bid 


bidden, bid 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS 171 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Infinitive 


bind 


bound 


bound, bounden 


bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


blend 


blent, blended 


blent, blended 


bless 


blest, blessed 


blest, blessed 


blow- 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke, brake 


broken 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built 


built, builded 


burn 


burnt, burned 


burnt, burned 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


can 


could 




cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cleave (adhere) 


cleaved, clave 


cleaved 


cleave (split) 


cleft, clove, clave 


cloven, cleaved 


cling 


clung 


clung 


clothe 


clad, clothed 


clad, clothed 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


crow 


crew, crowed 


crowed 


cut 


cut 


cut 


dare 


durst, dared 


dared 



172 



ENGLISH SENTENCE 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Infinitive 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dig 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


dream 


dreamt, dreamed 


dreamt, dreamed 


dress 


drest, dressed 


drest, dressed 


drink 


drank 


drunk, drunken 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dwell 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelt, dwelled 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell, felled 


fallen, felled 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fling 


flung 


flung 


% 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgot, forgotten 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


freight 


freighted 


fraught 


get 


got 


got, gotten 


gild 


gilt, gilded 


gilt, gilded 


gird 


girt, girded 


girt, girded 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 



PRINCIPAL PAETS OF IRREGULAR VERBS 173 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Infinitive. 


grave 


graved 


graven, graved 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang 


hung, hanged 


hung, hanged 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


heave 


hove, heaved 


hove, heaved 


hew 


hewed 


hewn, hewed 


hide 


hid 


hid, hidden 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hold 


held 


held, holden 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


knit 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


know 


knew 


known 


lade 


laded 


laden, laded 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


lean 


leant, leaned 


leant, leaned 


leap 


leapt, leaped 


leapt, leaped 


learn 


learnt, learned 


learnt, learned 


leave 


left 


left. 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


lie (recline) 


lay 


lain 


light 


lit, lighted 


lit, lighted 


load 


loaded 


laden, loaded 



174 



ENGLISH SENTENCE 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Infinitive 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


may 


might 




mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


mow 


mowed 


mown, mowed 


pay 


paid 


paid 


pen (enclose) 


pent, penned 


pent, penned 


plead 


pled, pleaded 


pled, pleaded 


prove 


proved 


proven, proved 


put 


put 


put 


quit 


quit, quitted 
quoth 


quit, quitted 


rap 


rapt, rapped 


rapt, rapped 


read 


read 


read 


rend 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rid 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


rive 


rived 


riven 


run 


ran 


run , 


saw 


sawed 


sawn, sawed 


say 


said 


said 


see 


saw 


seen 


seek 


sought 


sought 


sell 


sold 


sold 


send 


sent 


sent 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS 175 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Infinitive. 


set 


set 


set 


sew 


sewed 


sewn, sewed 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shape 


shaped 


shapen, shaped 


shave 


shaved 


shaven, shaved 


shear 


sheared 


shorn, sheared 


shed 


shed 


shed 


shine 


shone 


shone 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


show 


showed 


shown, showed 


shred 


shred, shredded 


shred, shredded 


shrink 


shrank, shrunk 


shrunk, shrunken 


shrive 


shrived 


shriven, shrived 


shut 


shut 


shut 


sing 


sang, sung 


sung 


sink 


sank, sunk 


sunk, sunken 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay 


slew 


slain 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


slide 


slid 


slid, slidden 


sling 


slung 


slung 


slink 


slunk 


slunk 


slit 


slit, slitted 


slit, slitted 


smell 


smelt, smelled 


smelt, smelled 


smite 


smote 


smitten, smit 


sow (scatter) 


sowed 


sown, sowed 


speak 


spoke, spake 


spoken 



176 



ENGLISH SENTENCE 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Infinitive. 


speed 


sped, speeded 


sped, speeded 


spell 


spelt, spelled 


spelt, spelled 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spill 


spilt, spilled 


spilt, spilled 


spin 


spun 


spun 


spit, 


spit, spat 


spat 


split 


split 


split 


spoil 


spoilt, spoiled 


spoilt, spoiled 


spread 


spread 


spread 


spring 


sprang, sprung 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stave 


stove 


stove 


stay 


staid, stayed 


staid, stayed 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 


strew 


strewed 


strewn, strew r ed 


stride 


strode 


stridden, strid 


strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


sware 


swore, sware 


sworn 


sweat 


sweat, sweated 


sweat, sweated 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


swell 


swelled 


swollen, swelled 


swim 


swam, swum 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS 



177 






Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Infinitive. 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


thrive 


throve, thrived 


thriven, thrived 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


tread 


trod 


trodden, trod 


wake 


woke, waked 


woke, waked 


wax 


waxed 


waxen, waxed 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove, weaved 


woven, weaved 


wed 


wed, wedded 


wed, wedded 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wet 


wet 


wet 


whet 


whet, whetted 


whet, whetted 


win 


won 


won 


wind 


wound 


wound 


work 


wrought, worked 


wrought, worked 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


w^rite 


wrote 


written 



178 



ENGLISH SENTENCE 



V. 



ADJECTIVES IRREGULARLY COMPARED. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


aft (Adv.) 


after 


aftmost, aftermost 


bad, evil, ill 


worse 


worst 


far 


farther 


farthest, farthermost 


fore 


former 


foremost, first 


forth 


further 


furthest, furthermost 


good 


better 


best 


hind 


hinder 


hindmost, hindermost 


in (Adv.) 


inner 


inmost, innermost 


late 


later, latter 


latest, last 


little 


less, lesser 


least 


much, many- 


more 


most 


nigh 


nigher 


nighest, next 


old 


elder, older 


eldest, oldest 


out (Adv.) 


outer, utter 


outmost, outermost 
utmost, uttermost 


up (Adv.) 


upper 


upmost, uppermost 



VI. 



LIST OF ADVERBS— Classified. 



1. Adver 


bs of Time : — 






now 


then 


to-day 


when 


yesterday 


ever 


lately 


hitherto 


heretofore 


recently 


before 


afterward, etc 



CONNECTIVES -CLASSIFIED 



179 



2. Adverbs of Place :- 
here there 

thence hence 

above below 

yonder wherever 



where whither 

whence hither 

beyond thither 

wheresoever whithersoever 



3. Adverbs of Manner (from Qualifying Adjectives) : — 
sweetly well slowly swiftly 
bravely truly softly petulantly, etc. 
honestly adroitly abruptly 

4. Adverbs of Degree : — 



very just 
too enough 


greatly 
little 


sufficiently 
intensely, etc 


5. Modal Adverbs : — 






maybe perhaps 
presumably positively 


probably 
surely 


possibly 
not, etc. 



VII. 



CONNECTIVES— Classified, 



I. Coordinate Connectives are : — 

1. Copulative : — and, both . . . and, as well as, also, 
besides, furthermore, likewise, etc. 

2. Adversative : — but, whereas, still, yet, on the contrary, 
nevertheless, etc. 



180 



ENGLISH SENTENCE 



3. Alternative: — or, nor, neither, neither . . . nor, 
either ... or. 

II. Subordinate Connectives are : — 

1. Conditional: — if, tho, unless, except, etc. 

2. Relative Pronouns: — who, which, that, what, as, but, 
whatever, whichever, whoever, etc. 

3. Relative Adverbs : — where, when, why. 

4. Conjunctive Adverbs : — 

a. Time : — after, as, before, ere, since, till, until, 

when, whenever, while, etc. 

b. Place : — whence, where, wherever, etc. 

c. Degree : — (as much) as, (more) than, the . . . the. 

d. Manner : — (as well) as, as, etc. 

e. Cause : — as, because, for, since, etc. 

f. Reason : — because, for, since, etc. 

g. Purpose : — that, in order that, so that, etc. 



5. Prepositions : — 






aboard 




around 


beyond 


like 


about 




as to 


but 


notwithstanding 


above 




at 


by 


of 


according 


to 


athwart 


concerning 


off 


across 




before 


down 


on 


after 




behind 


during 


out of 


against 




below 


ere 


over 


along 




beneath 


except 


past 


amid 




beside 


for 


round 


amidst 




besides 


from 


save 


among 




between 


in 


since 


amongst 




betwixt 


into 


till 



PARTS OF SPEECH— DEFINITIONS 



181 



thru 

thruout 

to 



toward 

towards 

under 



until 
unto 
up 



upon 
with 
within, without 



VIII. 



PARTS OF SPEECH— Definitions. 

I. Noun. — A Noun is a name, or the specific expression 
of any substantive idea. 

II. Pronoun. — A Pronoun is a word used for, or instead 
of, a noun. 

III. Verb. — A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, 
state, or quality of its subject. 

IV. Infinitive. — An Infinitive is a word used to express 
an idea of action, being, or state. 

V. Adjective. — An Adjective is a word used to express an 
idea that qualifies or limits ideas expressed by nouns. 

VI. Adverbs. — An Adverb is a word used to express an 
idea that modifies ideas expressed by Verbs, Infinitives, 
Adjectives, and Adverbs. 

VII. Connectives. — Connectives are words used to express 
the ideas of the relations existing between different ideas, 
between ideas and judgments, and between different judg- 
ments. 

VIII. Exclamatives. — Exclamatives are tvords used to 
express surprise, enthusiasm, sentiment, scorn, hatred, 
admonition, admiration, disregard, regret, remorse, etc. 



jUN 21 



1932 



JUN 21 1902 

1 COP\ DEL. TO CAT DIV, 
JUN. 2! 1902 



